SPECIAL    METHOD 
IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 


\ 


SPECIAL  METHOD 

IN 

ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE 

FOR  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 

BY 
CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  PH.D. 


garfc 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 

1912 
All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,    1904, 
BY  THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.      Published  October,  1904.      Reprinted 
April,  1905;  June,  1908  ;  December,  1910;  September,  1912. 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  is  a  complete  revision  of  the  "  Special 
Method  in  Science"  first  published  in  1896.  It  is 
also  extended  to  include  the  entire  course  of  the 
elementary  school.  The  plan  is  to  give  a  broad 
view  of  the  problem  of  science  teaching  by  a  brief 
historical  and  critical  survey  of  elementary  science 
work  and  of  the  ideas  thus  far  developed  in  schools. 

The  discussion  passes  from  general  aims  to  specific 
plans  for  the  course  of  study  and  method  of  instruc- 
tion. A  few  illustrations  are  also  given  of  a  full 
treatment  of  topics. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  is  to  find  some 
basis  for  selecting  and  arranging  the  most  important 
and  suitable  topics  for  a  course  of  study,  where  the 
field  of  science  furnishes  such  a  vast  and  varied 
collection  of  materials. 

We  have  also  undertaken  the  difficult  problem  of 
combining  the  usual  nature  study  topics  with  a  great 
series  of  studies  based  upon  the  practical  applica- 
tions of  science  to  life.  So  far  as  this  is  successful, 

359S56 


VI  PREFACE 

it  will  bring  the  science  lessons  into  the  closest  rela- 
tions to  geography,  history,  and  manual  training,  and, 
what  is  more  important,  will  bring  children  close  to 
the  social  and  industrial  problems  of  modern  life. 

The  course  of  study  given  in  Chapter  IX  is  offered 
with  diffidence.  And  yet  it  must  be  the  important, 
central  thing  in  all  our  present  discussion  of  this 
subject.  Our  theories  will  amount  to  little  until  they 
eventuate  in  a  reasonably  good  course  of  study. 

A  definite  course  of  study  needs  to  be  backed  up 
by  a  carefully  selected  list  of  books  and  helps.  In 
the  last  chapter  we  have  tried  to  give  a  complete  list 
of  such  books  as  will  be  most  useful  to  teachers  and 
pupils,  with  the  names  of  the  publishers. 

In  order  to  meet  still  better  the  practical  necessi- 
ties of  teachers  in  carrying  out  such  a  course  of  study, 
we  now  have  in  press  a  separate  volume  of  "  Science 
Lessons  for  Primary  Grades,"  in  which  most  of  the 
primary  topics  are  given  a  full  treatment.  It  is  our 
purpose  to  continue  this  series  in  two  other  volumes 
of  complete  science  lessons  for  intermediate  and 
grammar  grades. 

The  present  volume  is  the  fifth  of  a  series  of  Spe- 
cial Methods  in  the  common  school  studies.  The 
complete  series  runs  as  follows :  — 

I.  Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of  Complete 
English  Classics  in  the  Common  Schools. 


PREFACE  Vll 

II.  Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading  and  Oral 
Work  in  Story  Telling. 

III.  Special  Method  in  History. 

IV.  Special  Method  in  Geography. 

V.  Special  Method  in  Elementary  Science. 

VI.  Special  Method  in  Manual  Training  and  Con- 
structive Work.     (In  press.) 

VII.  Special  Method  in  Language.      (In  prepa- 
ration.) 

VIII.  Special  Method  in  Arithmetic.     (In  prepa- 
ration.) 

CHARLES  A.  McMURRY. 

PALATKA,  FLORIDA, 
April  9,  1904. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  »AGK 

I.    INTRODUCTORY  DISCUSSION i 

II.    HISTORY  AND  AIM  OF  SCIENCE  TEACHING  .        .  7 

III.  PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF   STUDY  AND  MEANS 

OF  SIMPLIFYING  IT 20 

IV.  THE    BASIS    FOR    SELECTING    AND    ARRANGING 

TOPICS  FOR   THE   COURSE  OF   STUDY         .  -35 

V.    THE  GRADUAL  APPROACHES  TO  SCIENCE    .        .  45 

VI.    THE  APPLICATIONS  OF  SCIENCE  TO  LIFE    .        .  56 

VII.    METHOD  IN  SCIENCE  LESSONS      ....  82 

VIII.    ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS 127 

IX.    THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 167 

X.    BOOKS  AS  AN  AID  TO  SCIENCE  TEACHING  .        .  247 


SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  ELE- 
MENTARY SCIENCE 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY   DISCUSSION 

FOR  at  least  three  centuries  there  has  been  abun- 
dant discourse  among  writers  on  education  in  favor 
of  natural  science  study  in  the  schools.  Educational 
reformers  like  Comenius,  Rousseau,  and  Colonel 
Parker  have  laid  great  stress  upon  the  educative 
value  in  childhood  and  youth  of  the  contact  between 
mind  and  matter  in  the  forms  which  nature  pre- 
sents. School  education  has  always  been  too  bookish, 
too  much  separated  from  objects  and  realities  of 
experience. 

Comenius  found  education  in  his  day  mired  in 
Latin  forms,  technicalities,  and  abstractions.  It  was 
a  killing  process  to  try  to  awaken  childlike  interests 
and  mind  action  upon  the  dead  rules  and  inflections 
of  a  purely  formal  grammar,  and  that  in  a  foreign 
tongue.  By  means  of  his  "Orbis  Pictus"  and  other 
books  of  method  he  tried  to  infuse  some  degree  of 
interest  and  meaning  into  the  lifeless  drills  of  the 
schools.  But  it  was  an  almost  hopeless  task  so  long 


2    ;       SPFCIAL    METHOD    iN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

as  Latin  remained,  like  a  vast  breastwork  of  obstruc- 
tion, at  the  very  doorway  of  education.  It  was 
impossible  to  establish  a  rational  system  of  popular 
education  so  long  as  a  dead  language  stretched  its 
lifeless  body  across  the  threshold  of  school  life, 
barring  entrance  to  the  fields  Elysian.  But  thanks 
to  the  power  and  vigor  of  our  native  tongue,  it  has 
taken  at  last  the  supreme  place  among  languages  in 
a  child's  education,  and  when  he  first  enters  school 
he  is  in  possession  of  this  treasure.  The  same  thing 
has  happened  in  France  and  Germany  and  in  other 
European  countries. 

The  vernacular  has  become  the  fundamental 
medium  of  thought.  One  of  the  enormities,  there- 
fore, that  vexed  the  souls  of  children  two  or  three 
hundred  years  ago  has  been  swept  away.  But  the 
linguistic  and  verbal  spirit  of  the  old  regime  is  still 
with  us,  and  many  teachers  still  think  children  have 
the  ideas  when  they  have  only  conned  the  forms 
in  which  ideas  are  expressed.  In  the  days  of  Latin 
supremacy,  Comenius  and  the  other  reformers  tried 
to  save  instruction  from  empty  verbalism  by  associ- 
ating the  objects  in  nature  with  the  Latin  names,  and 
we  have  been  trying,  for  more  than  one  generation, 
by  means  of  object  lessons  and  nature  studies,  to 
redeem  education  from  the  dry  rot  of  verbal  memo- 
rizing. But  in  our  day  we  have  already  got  beyond 
the  idea  that  natural  science  is  simply  an  auxiliary, 
a  means  of  making  language  and  other  studies  more 


INTRODUCTORY   DISCUSSION  3 

significant  and  real.  Nature  study  stands  out  in  its 
own  right,  an  equal  among  such  studies  as  reading, 
mathematics,  and  language. 

It  is  a  matter  of  no  little  surprise  with  many  that 
nature  study  has  made  so  small  progress  in  the 
common  schools.  For  three  centuries  in  Europe 
and  America  there  has  been  constant  advocacy  and 
boundless  faith  and  enthusiasm  in  nature  studies  for 
children,  but  the  output  in  the  schools  is  close  up  to 
nothing.  Yet  a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  inherent 
difficulties  involved  in  a  deep  educational  problem 
like  this  shows  that  centuries  rather  than  years  are 
required  in  working  it  out.  It  may  be  truly  said  that 
a  right  selection  of  topics  and  a  right  teaching  of 
natural  science  would  produce  a  marked  change  in 
the  teaching  of  all  subjects  in  the  common  school. 
The  method  of  realism  in  science  subjects  is  a  good 
criterion  of  method  in  all  studies.  A  proper  attitude 
of  a  teacher  in  handling  science  topics  in  a  class  is 
a  direct  protest  against  a  large  part  of  the  work  in 
all  studies  now  done  in  our  schools. 

We  talk  about  science  teaching,  realism,  sense 
training,  experimental  work,  investigation,  field  work, 
etc.,  and  still  we  hug  our  books  as  tightly  as  before. 
If  we  were  dropped  into  a  school  of  eighty  children 
without  books  or  paper,  as  was  Pestalozzi  at  Stanz, 
we  might  be  helpless.  True  science  teaching  is  the 
direct  realism  of  education.  In  nearly  all  other 
studies  we  can  get  along  with  books  and  deceive 


4  SPECIAL   METHOD   IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

ourselves,  more  or  less,  with  words.  But  in  introduc- 
ing children  to  nature  studies  the  absurdity  of  mere 
book-work  is  more  apparent  than  in  other  branches 
of  learning.  In  natural  science,  therefore,  more 
than  in  any  other  study,  we  are  forced  to  find  the 
true  method  of  object  study.  We  are  dealing  with 
those  objects  and  phenomena  which  stimulate  the 
mind  to  its  fundamental  activities  and  supply  it  with 
elementary  material  of  thought.  Nature  study  fur- 
nishes the  constructive  materials  and  illustrations  out 
of  which  other  studies  explain  and  make  real  their 
notions.  In  its  own  right,  nature  study  is  the  direct 
acquaintance-making  and  examination  of  these  ob- 
jects at  first  hand.  It  is,  therefore,  the  true  parent 
of  all  realism  in  studies  (realism  used  in  the  sense 
of  object  study).  In  contrast  to  this  we  see  an  op- 
pressive verbalism  still  prevailing  in  the  schools,  and 
the  heaving  of  general  notions  to  the  front  in  most 
text-books  and  recitations.  The  movement  from 
particular  to  general,  from  percept  to  concept  (gen- 
eral notion)  is  not  yet  recognized  as  the  primary  law 
of  learning.  It  is  strange  that  nature  study  with  its 
objective  realism  is  not  yet  come  into  possession  of 
its  rightful  patrimony.  Nature  study,  more  perhaps 
than  any  other  branch  of  learning,  advertises  the 
foolishness  of  forcing  upon  a  child  the  general 
notions,  the  principles,  before  the  illustrative  mate- 
rials have  been  presented  to  his  mind. 

The  world  of  nature  is  the  chosen  domain  of  a 


INTRODUCTORY   DISCUSSION  5 

child's  operations ;  it  is  the  field  of  his  enterprise, 
of  his  efforts  at  self-expression.  Nature  holds  out 
objective  inducements  and  invites  him  to  varied 
effort.  Even  if  the  stimulus  comes  from  literature, 
as  from  myth  or  historical  story,  the  place  for  actual- 
izing his  ideas  is  in  his  physical  environment.  Rob- 
inson Crusoe,  for  example,  is  the  starter  for  a  variety 
of  experiments  and  investigations  upon  the  dogs, 
parrots,  grain  fields,  clay,  and  other  animate  and 
inanimate  objects  in  his  own  physical  surroundings. 
This  is  the  way  in  which  all  historical  and  literary 
works  should  be  studied  in  the  schools,  with  feet 
upon  the  ground  though  the  eyes  be  turned  to  the 
stars. 

We  find,  therefore,  that  the  effort  to  discover  the 
best  materials  and  methods  of  science  teaching  will 
bring  us  face  to  face  with  the  broader  and  deeper 
problems  of  the  school  course.  Science  teaching  has 
a  direct  word  of  warning  and  of  helpfulness  to  all  the 
other  studies.  It  speaks  also  to  the  heart  of  a  child 
as  well  as  to  his  senses  in  all  his  earlier  years.  Its 
place,  therefore,  in  the  child's  life  and  in  trie  school 
curriculum  is  one  of  no  mean  or  secondary  rank. 

Nature  study  includes  the  whole  broad  territory  of 
the  physical  universe.  In  order  to  make  the  notion 
explicit,  we  speak  analytically  of  the  natural  sciences, 
—  botany,  geology,  zoology,  physics,  chemistry,  physi- 
cal geography,  astronomy,  meteorology,  physiology. 
But  this  list  is  simply  explanatory  to  older  people. 


6  SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

From  the  standpoint  of  pedagogy,  nature  study  is 
not  a  collection  of  sciences,  nor  a  scientific  unity  of 
all  sciences  in  one,  but  a  practical  grasp  of  the  whole 
physical  world  around  us  as  a  set  of  conditions  envi- 
roning a  child.  The  best  way  to  look  at  nature  is  to 
recognize  it  as  a  body  of  educative  materials,  press- 
ing upon  the  children  from  all  sides,  calling  out  their 
activities,  and  impressively  iterating  the  simplest  real 
lessons.  There  are  two  phases  of  artificiality  in 
science  teaching  which  we  wish  to  avoid  in  the  early 
work  with  children,  though  both  are  indispensable 
as  we  advance  into  higher  grades.  One  is  the 
notion  of  scientific  classification,  which  to  mature 
minds  is  identical  with  any  notion  of  science;  and 
(  the  other,  the  use  of  books  in  science  studies. 
Nature,  as  she  thrusts  herself  upon  the  attention 
of  children,  is  neither  classified  nor  bookish.  Nature 
shows  herself  as  an  interesting  collection  of  physical 
realities,  and  it  is  only  little  by  little  that  children 
discover  and  recognize  the  threads  of  system  running 
through  these  objects  and  activities,  and  that  books 
appear  at  all  helpful  in  getting  at  the  explanation  of 
things. 


CHAPTER  II 

HISTORY  AND   AIM   OF   SCIENCE  TEACHING 

IF  we  inquire  among  thoughtful  instructors  in 
science  what  the  purpose  of  this  study  is,  we  shall 
get  a  variety  of  answers,  somewhat  as  follows :  — 

The  training  of  children  to  observe  closely  and 
accurately  so  as  to  form  habits  of  scrutiny  results 
in  the  sharpening  of  the  senses  to  acuteness  and 
vigor.  It  includes,  also,  the  storage  of  elementary 
percepts  of  strictly  experimental  type.  We  deal 
with  those  objects  and  phenomena  which  stimulate 
the  mind  to  its  fundamental  activities  and  supply  it 
with  the  elementary  materials  of  thought.  Nature 
study  leads  also  to  thoughtfulness  and  the  exercise  of 
reason  upon  the  materials  presented.  It  arouses  and 
feeds  the  spirit  of  inquisitiveness  and  investigation. 
It  not  only  awakens  an  interest  in  the  causal  rela- 
tions of  nature's  work,  but  teaches  respect  for  the 
law-abiding  quality  and  truthfulness  in  nature,  as 
grounded  in  the  realism  of  experimental  knowledge. 
Nature  study  is  also  directly  useful  for  its  deepen- 
ing and  extension  of  practical  knowledge,  as  in 
the  lessons  of  health,  temperance,  and  sanitation.  It 
reveals  the  utilities  of  natural  products  and  the 

7 


8  SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

inventions  and  processes  of  man's  ingenuity  as 
embodied  in  telescopes,  microscopes,  steam-engines, 
medicines,  ventilation,  photography,  mirrors,  the 
compass,  pumps,  etc.  Without  a  real  knowledge  of 
these  things,  children  and  grown  people  cannot  adapt 
themselves  to  the  physical  conditions  and  necessities 
which  their  own  bodies  and  the  objective  world 
around  them  impose. 

Nature  study  leads  up  gradually  to  a  grasp  of 
scientific  classifications,  of  the  systematic  order  and 
law  that  prevail  in  the  world  ;  in  short,  ultimately,  to 
a  perception  of  the  plan  and  wisdom  that  pervade 
nature.  Here  we  are  upon  the  threshold  of  religion. 
The  aesthetic  interests  and  tastes  cultivated  by  nature 
study,  the  perception  of  beauty  and  grandeur  and 
harmony,  are  among  the  strongest  educative  in- 
fluences of  science  study.  Some  even  claim  that 
nature  is  essentially  moral  in  its  teaching,  and  we 
may  all  agree,  at  least,  that  indirectly  many  moral 
qualities  are  strengthened  by  a  wise  method  of 
science  study. 

By  an  inquiry  into  the  history  and  present  status 
of  nature  study  in  the  grades  we  shall  find  that  all 
these  ideas  have  their  influence  with  teachers,  one 
person  laying  stress  upon  one  phase  of  science 
training,  another  upon  some  other.  Not  only  so, 
but  there  has  been  a  decided  evolution  and  progress 
in  ideas  of  method  in  connection  with  science  instruc- 
tion in  the  grades. 


HISTORY   AND   AIM   OF    SCIENCE   TEACHING  9 

The  following  brief  historical  view  of  the  succes- 
sive ideas  that  have  influenced  science  teaching  is 
suggested  by  Dr.  W.  Rein's  discussion  of  natural 
science  in  the  Fourth  School  Year  ("Das  Vierte 
Schuljahr"). 

In  taking  up  nature  study  in  the  common  schools, 
the  first  idea  to  make  itself  practically  operative  with 
teachers  and  book-makers  was  the  notion  of  the 
wonderful.  Curious  or  remarkable  plants  or  animals 
were  talked  of  or  read  about.  Teachers  presented 
children  with  something  marvellous  or  prodigious 
in  nature  to  excite  their  curiosity.  Things  even 
freakish  or  outlandish  were  called  in  to  satisfy  this 
thirst  for  the  marvellous.  Quite  a  number  of  the 
elementary  science  books  now  in  use  in  our  schools 
are  mainly  devoted  to  a  description  of  such  curiosi- 
ties in  nature  as  the  big  trees  of  California,  Mam- 
moth Cave,  the  ant-eater,  an  elephant  hunt,  the 
duckbill  of  Australia,  an  iceberg,  a  geyser.  This 
primitive  impulse  to  feast  on  foreign  wonders  and 
curiosities  is  contrary  to  two  of  the  most  important 
requirements  of  good  science  study,  —  first,  that  the 
objects  studied  be  taken  from  the  home  neighbor- 
hood, as  the  house  cat,  the  dandelion,  the  maple  tree, 
the  butterfly,  and  other  objects  already  familiar  to  the 
observation  and  experience  of  children ;  and  second, 
that  children  learn  to  see  wonders  in  the  common- 
est objects,  instead  of  going  to  the  world's  end  to  find 
strange  things.  Such  study  of  foreign  wonders  can 


I 


IO        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

be  made  only  through  books,  pictures,  and  verbal 
descriptions,  while  true  science  teaching  throws 
books  aside  and  shows  children  how  to  look  nature 
directly  in  the  face.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  this 
first  impulse  to  seek  extraordinary  and  freakish 
things  in  nature  is  the  exact  opposite  of  the  true 
method  of  nature  study.  The  whole  tendency  of  this 
perversion  of  method  is  to  put  our  trust  in  books  rather 
than  in  our  own  powers  of  observation,  and  to  cause 
children  to  disregard  the  marvellous  things  all  about 
them  in  nature,  and  to  chase  the  world  over  on  im- 
aginary journeys  in  the  search  for  curiosities.  It 
teaches  dependence  upon  books  and  hearsay,  and 
even  upon  what  is  mythical,  instead  of  personal  ob- 
servation and  direct  experience.  It  turns  the  mind 
away  from  surrounding  realities  toward  distant  un- 
certainties. Yet  the  impulse  to  find  out  the  wonder- 
ful in  nature  is  legitimate  and  inspiring,  and  is  one 
of  the  strongest  motives  in  nature  study.  Only  let 
it  begin  at  home  with  familiar  objects,  and  rest  upon 
the  undoubted  realities  and  wonders  which  every 
child  can  find  for  himself  at  his  own  doorway. 

The  second  idea  which  early  showed  itself  in 
science  studies  was  the  doctrine  of  utility,  the  prac- 
tical value  and  information  contained  in  this  study 
for  the  average  man  or  child.  It  is  certainly  worth 
while  to  know  the  useful  and  hurtful  things  in 
nature.  The  study  of  plants  and  trees  brings  out 
medicinal  or  poisonous  qualities.  Some  animals  and 


HISTORY   AND   AIM    OF   SCIENCE   TEACHING          II 

plants  are  of  daily  use  to  men  for  food  or  clothing  or 
shelter.  Some  of  the  simpler  lessons  of  physics, 
chemistry,  and  physiology  have  to  do  with  comfort 
and  health,  while  the  common  inventions  and 
machines  in  general  use  in  our  homes,  fields,  and 
factories  need  to  be  explained  in  science  lessons. 
This  notion  of  the  utility  of  science  studies  has  a 
wide  range  of  meanings,  from  the  low  mercenary 
motive  of  personal  gain,  up  through  all  the  steps  of 
practical  benefit,  to  the  highest  utilities  which  nature 
has  to  offer  in  her  service  to  man.  One  of  the 
most  striking  characteristics  of  the  physical  world  in 
which  we  live  is  the  multiplex  utility  of  natural 
science  in  the  affairs  of  all  classes  of  people  in  all 
their  daily  concerns.  So  far  as  there  is  progress  in 
the  world,  men  are  everywhere  seeking  to  understand 
and  to  utilize  nature ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  great  prob- 
lems of  education  to  prepare  children  for  real  life  by 
securing  to  them  such  an  understanding  and  mastery 
of  the  physical  conditions  of  life  and  of  the  many 
and  varied  utilities  in  nature.  In  the  early  history 
of  science  teaching,  however,  the  utility  of  nature 
study  was  thought  of  in  a  narrow  and  illiberal  sense. 
The  poisonous  and  the  useful  plants  and  animals 
marked  the  limits  of  the  study. 

In  the  third  place,  a  significant  and  fruitful  notion 
of  science  came  to  notice  when  teachers  asked  the 
question,  What  mental  discipline  is  supplied  by  these 
studies  ?  Rising  above  the  bare  question  of  utility, 


12        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

teachers  inquired  what  mental  habits  and  tendencies 
science  studies  fostered.  Most  science  teachers  to- 
day lay  the  chief  stress  upon  the  mental  discipline 
afforded  by  science,  that  is,  the  training  of  the  observ- 
ing powers  of  children,  the  quickening  of  the  sense 
perceptions,  learning  to  see  and  hear  and  take  more 
accurate  note  of  the  things  seen  and  heard,  the  habits 
formed  of  observing,  comparing,  and  tracing  rela- 
tions, the  respect  for  law  and  order  and  truthfulness 
impressed  by  such  realities.  All  these  are  doubly 
emphasized  by  science  teachers  of  our  day.  Perhaps 
no  other  idea  has  been  so  much  exalted  by  science 
teachers  as  this  peculiar  mental  discipline  which,  it  is 
claimed,  is  not  furnished  by  other  studies.  Stated  in 
the  above  form,  this  aim  is  comprehensive  and  stimu- 
lating, but  when  reduced  to  the  practice  of  the 
schools,  it  often  runs  into  serious  error  and  difficulty. 
The  test  for  all  such  drill  exercises,  which  aim  at 
discipline  and  habit  of  observation,  is  the  power  to 
describe  the  objects  seen  and  compared.  Description 
becomes  a  mania.  In  order  to  carry  this  observation 
drill  into  school  a  variety  of  natural  objects  is  ex- 
amined and  described  as  to  form  and  appearance, 
color,  quality,  and  materials.  Trees,  plants,  and 
flowers,  birds  and  insects,  crystals  and  minerals,  are 
drawn  into  this  descriptive  process  which  easily 
degenerates  into  a  smooth  rut.  Every  tree  is 
analyzed  into  roots,  stem,  and  leaves,  every  flower 
into  calyx,  corolla,  stamens,  and  pistils,  every  leaf 


HISTORY   AND   AIM   OF   SCIENCE   TEACHING  1$ 

into  ribs,  veins,  and  margins,  etc.,  through  all  the 
round  of  nature  objects.  Such  descriptive  work  may 
easily  grow  into  a  barren  detail  of  external  form  and 
feature.  The  spirit  of  science  teaching  drops  out, 
and  only  the  empty  form  which  is  supposed  to  pro- 
duce discipline  remains. 

A  special  advantage  reputed  to  spring  from  this 
descriptive  drill  is  language  training.  But  science 
is  too  important  to  be  made  simply  a  handmaid  of 
language  exercises.  In  fact,  if  lessons  fail  as  science 
lessons,  they  will  doubly  fail  as  language.  Training 
children,  therefore,  to  observe  and  describe  is  not 
the  leading  aim  of  science  study.  Its  tendency  is  so 
strong  in  the  direction  of  formalism  and  superficial 
study  of  objects  that  it  soon  loses  all  power  to  stimu- 
late effort.  It  does  not  lay  hold  of  the  deeper  im- 
pulses, the  wide-awake  interest,  and  stronger  effort  of 
children  to  trace  out  causal  relations,  to  discover  the 
hidden  law,  to  explain,  for  example,  the  construction 
and  use  of  different  organs  in  plants  and  animals. 
In  spite  of  the  emphasis  placed  by  the  scientists 
themselves  upon  this  disciplinary  value  of  studies, 
in  spite  of  the  strong  necessity  for  right  habits  of 
observation,  the  mere  discipline  derived  cannot  be 
regarded  as  the  controlling  aim  of  these  studies.  The 
real  purpose  of  science  teaching  in  its  higher  influ- 
ence is  not  bare  mental  discipline,  but  the  perma- 
nent awakening  of  the  whole  mind  and  spirit  of  the 
child  so  as  to  bring  him  into  intelligent  relation 


14        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

to  the  world  around  him.  Discipline,  therefore,  is 
one  of  the  secondary  or  incidental  aims  of  science 
instruction. 

In  the  progress  of  science  teaching  in  the  schools 
a  fourth  and  more  comprehensive  aim  has  been  set 
up  and  put  into  practice.  It  is  the  idea  of  scientific 
order  and  classification,  the  reduction  of  all  the  varied 
objects  and  phenomena  of  nature  to  an  accurate 
system  of  classes  and  subclasses,  of  general  and 
special  laws.  It  is  an  effort  to  get  the  mastery  of 
nature  by  reducing  its  endless  variety  of  forms  and 
phenomena  to  system  and  law.  Dr.  Rein  says  :  "  In 
the  latter  half  of  the  last  (eighteenth)  century  lived 
the  great  founder  or  reformer  of  systematic  natural 
science,  Karl  von  Linnaeus.  His  influence  reached  far 
into  the  nineteenth  century  and  was  universal.  Goethe 
himself  affirms  that,  next  to  Shakespeare  and  Spinoza, 
Linnaeus  exercised  the  greatest  influence  upon  him. 
Through  Linnaeus,  system  came  to  the  highest  re- 
nown. In  the  effort  to  set  up  a  system  which  would 
satisfy  all  requirements  was  recognized  the  highest 
aim  of  scientific  natural  science.  In  quick  succes- 
sion followed  the  systems  of  many  scientists.  Is  it 
any  wonder  that  system,  even  down  to  the  common 
schools,  became  the  chief  aim  of  natural  science 
instruction  ?  Moreover,  the  pursuit  of  this  aim 
seems  to  satisfy  an  inevitable  need,  that  of  bringing 
knowledge  into  order,  by  means  of  order  to  get  a 
survey  of  the  multiplicity  (die  Vielheit)  of  single 


HISTORY   AND   AIM    OF   SCIENCE   TEACHING  15 

things.  For  without  a  principle  of  order  this  multi- 
plicity would  become  an  unbearable  load."  ("  Das 
Vierte  Schuljahr,"  p.  115.) 

The  drift  toward  scientific  classification  or  system 
has  been  very  strong  with  us,  especially  in  high 
schools  and  colleges,  where  most  teachers  are  trained. 
In  the  study  of  botany,  for  example,  the  chief  effort 
was  directed  to  analysis  and  determination  of  speci- 
mens. When  this  process  had  gone  on  long  enough 
to  secure  a  superficial  grasp  of  all  the  important 
classes  of  plants  the  chief  result  was  attained.  The 
zoologies,  a  few  years  ago,  contained  a  full  classifica- 
tion and  brief  description  of  the  leading  families  and 
orders  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  text-books  in 
physics  and  chemistry  also  gave  a  brief  outline  of 
those  sciences.  In  all  these  cases  the  text-book 
played  the  principal  role,  and  the  true  scientific 
method  of  experiment  remained  unrealized.  The 
text-book  methods  followed  systematic  aims,  but  as 
we  have  broken  with  the  text-books  and  come  in 
direct  contact  with  the  objects  in  nature,  other  aims 
than  those  of  classification  have  become  prominent. 
In  elementary  schools,  especially,  it  is  not  well  to 
emphasize  classifications,  but  to  rest  the  work  more 
upon  particular  phases  of  object  study  and  experi- 
ment. The  studies  for  children  should  be  individual 
and  biographical.  A  life  history  of  butterfly  or 
squirrel  or  fish,  with  a  sufficient  consecutive  obser- 
vation into  details  and  gathering  of  facts  so  as  to 


1 6        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

give  a  deeper  insight  into  habits  and  mode  of  life,  is 
necessary.  Until  we  can  furnish  teachers  and  chil- 
dren with  the  opportunity  of  making  such  biographi- 
cal studies  in  nature,  the  science  work  in  our  common 
schools  must  be  greatly  hampered.  The  strong 
tendency  of  text-books  in  natural  science  to  be  sys- 
tematic (that  is,  to  give  the  outlines  of  a  system) 
almost  completely  destroys  their  value  for  the  com- 
mon schools.  And  yet  all  true  nature  study  leads 
up  to  the  system  and  order  of  the  universe. 

As  children  gather  up  the  rich  materials  from  the 
biographies  of  trees  and  insects,  of  fish  or  bird, 
they  will  gradually  gain  comprehensive  views  of  the 
chief  classes  and  underlying  principles  of  order.  The 
whole  movement  in  science  teaching  is  toward  an 
adequate  grasp  of  classes  and  laws.  The  great  mis- 
•  ;  take  is  made  in  trying  to  begin  where  we  ought  to 
end.  Classifications  are  the  abstract  forms  of  science 
and  sum  up  the  results  of  study,  while  the  character- 
istic value  of  early  science  lessons  is  their  concrete- 
ness.  Children  are  easily  and  naturally  attentive  to 
the  concrete  phases  of  object  study,  while  they  turn 
away  in  dislike  from  the  barren  study  of  classes.  If 
we  can  answer  the  question  how  to  approach  the 
general  truths  of  science,  we  shall  probably  have 
the  solution  to  the  most  troublesome  problem  in  this 
study,  and  at  the  same  time  settle  some  of  the  most 
vexed  questions  in  methods  of  teaching. 

We  are  not  content,  therefore,  with  any  of  the  four 


HISTORY   AND    AIM    OF    SCIENCE    TEACHING  I/ 

aims  of  science  study  thus  far  suggested.  Neither 
singly  nor  combined  have  they  sufficient  value  to  stand 
as  the  central,  controlling  aim  of  the  great  proces- 
sion of  nature  lessons.  How,  then,  shall  we  find  a 
standpoint  from  which  to  survey  this  broad  field  of 
studies  and  discover  the  leading  aim  for  its  conquest  ? 
We  may  get  a  suggestion  of  the  proper  attitude  for 
attacking  this  problem  from  the  child  himself.  He  is 
the  one,  after  all,  who  is  most  concerned  with  the  out- 
come of  our  theories.  What  use  has  he  for  this  large 
world  of  varied  realities,  both  now  and  in  the  future  ? 
If  you  ask  him  the  question  outright,  he  will  remain 
as  speechless  as  the  sphinx;  but  if  brought  face  to 
face  with  nature's  teaching,  he  may  respond  heartily 
in  scores  of  ways.  As  parents  and  teachers  it  is  our 
business  to  take  a  sort  of  composite  photograph  of  a 
child's  present  impulses  and  future  needs,  and  then, 
by  combining  our  knowledge  of  children  with  the 
garnered  wisdom  of  the  world  in  matters  of  educa- 
tion, we  may  possibly  discover  a  method  of  teaching 
which  will  satisfy  a  child's  present  growing  needs 
for  food  and  nourishment,  and  at  the  same  time 
fit  him  for  his  future  life  in  the  midst  of  nature  and 
society.  If  the  old  saying  is  true,  that  the  child  is 
father  to  the  man,  that  is,  foreshadowing  what  the 
man  will  be,  he  has  within  him  those  better  instincts 
and  tendencies  which,  if  properly  developed,  will  make 
him  the  father  of  the  right  sort  of  man ;  that  is,  the 
instincts  which  will  prompt  him  to  respond  vigorously 


1 8        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

to  those  methods  of  science  study  which  give  him  the 
best  preparation  for  life. 

We  may  state  the  broad  aim  of  science  studies  as 
a  responsive  insight  into  nature  with  a  view  to  a 
growing  adjustment  to  the  physical  and  social  envi- 
ronment. It  is  an  interested  understanding  of  the 
materials  and  activities  of  the  world's  great  work- 
shop, an  appreciation  of  the  variety,  beauty,  harmony, 
and  law  of  nature's  handiwork.  If  a  child  is  to 
reach  maturity  with  a  proper  insight  into  physical 
laws,  forces,  products,  utilities,  and  inventive  appli- 
ances, he  must  begin  early  to  train  his  eye  and  his 
understanding  to  look  into  these  wonders.  Yet  this 
is  not  a  dull  business  to  a  child.  It  is  the  very  thing 
he  is  most  of  all  inclined  to  do  if  kept  in  a  natural 
attitude  and  prudently  guided  in  his  employments. 
It  falls  in  with  his  present  impulses  toward  physical 
activity  and  mental  expansion.  The  native  interests 
which  call  forth  his  energetic  effort,  both  physical 
and  mental,  are  powerfully  directed  toward  the  many 
curious  and  useful  attractions  in  nature.  Nature 
study  should  lead  to  something  beyond  useful  knowl- 
edge, sense  training,  observation,  discipline,  and  the 
crude  mastery  of  scientific  order  and  system.  With 
these  and  through  them  it  should  appeal  to  his  instinc- 
tive interests  because  of  its  recognized  value  to  him, 
because  it  reveals  the  physical  world  to  him  and  to 
his  needs.  It  thus  enters  as  a  constituent  element 
into  his  own  personal  culture  and  growth ;  it  becomes 


HISTORY   AND   AIM   OF   SCIENCE   TEACHING  IQ 

a  part  of  his  life  and  character.  If  we  devote  our 
whole  energy  to  any  of  the  secondary  or  subordinate 
aims  of  science  study,  we  shall  make  the  work  me- 
chanical and  superficial  and  not  attain  even  such 
lower  aims.  If  we  follow  the  higher  aim,  to  give  to 
each  child  a  personal  insight,  a  sympathetic  apprecia- 
tion of  the  realm  of  nature,  so  far  as  it  can  be  grasped 
by  his  mind,  if  we  seek  to  enshrine  all  this  knowledge 
in  his  tastes,  interests,  and  feelings,  we  shall  find  this 
phase  of  culture  an  essential  agency  in  social  equip- 
ment and  in  personal  character  development.  It  ap- 
peals directly  to  his  mental  appetites,  to  his  aesthetic 
tastes,  religious  instincts,  and  human  wants.  It 
supplies  him  with  the  materials  and  tools  for  the 
exercise  of  his  present  urgent  activities,  and  its  utili- 
ties are  found  to  be  so  interwoven  with  the  comforts 
and  progress  of  men  that  nature  is  seen  to  lay  down  f 
the  conditions  of  life.  Every  child,  therefore,  should  ' 
go  into  nature  studies  up  to  the  full  measure  of  his  j 
powers,  and  come  out  enriched  in  knowledge,  in  disci- 
pline, in  sympathetic  insight,  and  in  practical  power. 


CHAPTER  III 

PLANNING  THE  COURSE   OF   STUDY  AND   MEANS   OF 
SIMPLIFYING   IT 

To  state  such  an  aim  as  this  for  nature  study  is 
easy,  but  to  show  a  feasible  plan  for  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  desired  result  is  not  easy.  The  course 
of  study  for  the  eight  grades  must  reveal  a  rational, 
well-matured  plan  reaching  this  aim.  Such  a  course 
of  study  we  have  attempted  to  lay  out,  and  the  suc- 
cess or  failure  of  this  book  must  depend  primarily 
upon  the  course  offered. 

The  stumbling-block  that  often  upsets  all  calcula- 
tions at  the  very  outset  is  the  complexity  of  the 
material  included  in  nature  study.  The  endless  mul- 
titude and  diversity  of  objects  and  forces,  the  large 
number  of  wide-branching,  independent  sciences,  as 
geology,  botany,  chemistry,  etc.,  are  appalling.  In 
any  limited  department  of  science  like  zoology,  it  is 
not  easy  to  establish  the  true  order  of  development 
of  the  subject,  whether,  for  example,  to  begin  with 
the  lower,  simpler  forms  of  animal  life  or  with  more 
complex  and  highly  organized  groups.  But  in 
nature  study  considered  as  a  whole,  the  question 

20 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY       21 

comes   how  to   select   and  arrange  materials  drawn 
from  a  dozen  widely  different  sciences. 

The  problem  of  selecting  is  still  further  compli- 
cated by  the  necessity  for  choosing  the  science  topics 
with  proper  regard  to  the  closely  related  subjects  in 
geography,  history,  manual  training,  and  other  j 
studies.  Nor  can  we  confine  our  studies  to  pure  i 
science.  The  intrusive  and  masterful  way  in  which 
natural  science  has  been  coming  into  our  houses, 
factories,  and  industries  of  all  sorts,  compels  us  to 
pay  considerable  attention  to  the  applications  of 
science  to  life.  So  important  indeed  is  this  practical 
phase  of  science  studies,  that  we  will  devote  later  an 
entire  chapter  to  its  consideration. 

We  seek  some  plain  road  by  which  we  can  travel 
through  nature's  domain,  without  wandering  up  and 
down  all  the  highways  and  byways  of  the  different 
sciences. 

We  believe  that  the  problem  of  elementary  science 
can  be  stripped  of  its  complexity  and  adapted  to  the 
simple  needs  of  children.  The  child's  own  method 
of  getting  acquainted  with  his  little  environment 
gives  the  key  to  the  solution.  The  home  neighbor- 
hood and  surroundings  of  a  child  furnish  us  the 
field  of  operations,  and  they  are  small  compared 
with  the  vast  range  of  the  sciences.  In  these  very 
limited  surroundings  there  are  a  few  points  where 
his  interest  and  activity  are  strongly  concentrated. 
We  have  thus  reduced  our  problem  to  very  small 


22        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

proportions,  and  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  home 
neighborhood  we  shall  find  still  other  important 
means  of  simplification. 

From  this  starting-point  we  may  briefly  survey 
the  means  of  working  out  a  simple  course  in  ele- 
mentary science. 

We  have  just  observed  that  children's  interest  and 
attention  are  not  distributed  evenly  over  all  fields  of 
the  home  environment.  There  are  a  few  natural 
centres,  such  as  the  house,  the  school,  the  local 
community  life  and  certain  attractive  neighborhood 
resorts  around  which  the  interests  and  influences 
of  child  life  are  strongly  grouped.  .The  whole 
body  of  experiences  which  is  naturally  gathered  and 
organized  into  one  of  these  centres  has  a  strong 
educative  effect.  The  home,  the  woods,  the  river, 
the  park,  and  a  few  points  of  town  and  country  life 
furnish  the  familiar  centres,  and  they  are  most 
vitalized  by  ever  recurrent  activities  and  interests. 
Any  science  lessons  which  spring  from  these  centres 
are  reenforced  by  the  whole  previously  developed 
machinery  of  habit  and  experience. 

A  Few  Centres 

I.  The  home,  in  the  narrow  sense,  is  the  most 
important  of  these  natural  gathering  points  or  organ- 
izing centres.  Other  studies  also,  such  as  geography, 
literature,  and  history,  are  best  rooted  in  the  home 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY        23 

and  its  surroundings.  But  the  home  or  family  circle 
as  a  starting-point  and  return  goal  for  elementary 
science  deserves  a  still  greater  emphasis. 

The  home  with  its  garden  —  plants  and  weeds,  fruit 
trees,  lawn,  bushes,  shade  trees,  flowers,  birds,  and 
insects ;  the  chickens,  horses,  cows,  and  pet  animals, 
with  the  care  needed  by  them,  furnish  many  of  the 
best  simple  lessons.  The  yard  should  have  such 
shade  and  fruit  trees  and  the  garden  such  vege- 
tables and  flowering  plants  as  will  best  serve  the 
needs  and  tastes  of  the  family.  The  foods  prepared 
in  the  kitchen  involve  more  science  lessons  than 
most  people  ever  learn.  The  kitchen,  the  laundry, 
and  the  bath  room  are  good  places  to  learn  the  uses 
of  science.  The  sleeping  rooms  and  living  rooms 
require  the  constant  beneficence  of  sunlight  and 
ventilation.  The  cellar  should  be  an  example  of 
cleanliness,  by  such  use  of  drainage,  fresh  air,  white- 
wash, and  disinfectants  as  science  demands.  It  is 
well  to  understand  the  benefits  and  dangers  of 
equipping  a  house  with  gas,  electric  lights,  plumb- 
ing, a  heating  and  ventilating  plant,  and  a  water 
supply.  The  sickness  and  health,  the  games  and 
activities,  food,  and  dress  of  children  are  science  les- 
sons for  the  parents  and  indirectly  for  the  children. 
The  clothing  and  bedding,  carpets,  and  uphol- 
stering involve  questions  of  cleanliness  and  health. 
The  fire  on  the  hearth,  the  moth  in  the  carpet  or  cloth- 
ing, the  mould  on  the  fruit  or  bread,  the  cleansing  of 


24        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

a  sink,  the  ventilation  of  a  room,  the  care  of  a  bruise, 
wound,  or  cold,  are  science  lessons  of  primary  and 
general  importance.  The  very  construction  of  the 
house  is  based  upon  the  best  that  men  have  learned 
about  the  nature  and  quality  of  iron,  brick,  lime,  sand, 
paint,  glass,  woods,  marble,  and  other  materials. 
The  plans  and  processes  of  building  require  the 
expert  scientific  skill  of  the  architect,  plumber, 
painter,  decorator,  and  other  craftsmen. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  scores  of  good  science  lessons 
spring  out  of  the  comforts  and  necessities  of  the 
home  where  all  these  experiences  centre.  A  well- 
equipped  home,  in  the  modern  sense,  is  a  centre  in 
which  many  valuable  lessons  from  the  various  sciences 
are  focussed.  If  these  topics  are  found  in  other  re- 
spects suitable  to  the  children,  their  close  identifica- 
tion with  home  interests  and  needs  gives  them  unusual 
value  and  meaning  as  starting-points  in  science  study. 

2.  The  local  town,  as  a  centre  of  community 
interests,  is  likewise  a  focal  point  throughout  child- 
hood. Both  town  and  country  children  are  well 
known  to  have  a  keen  interest  in  the  sights  and 
activities  of  the  town.  Among  the  problems  of 
community  life  are  many  which  have  a  strictly  scien- 
tific character,  which  are  appropriate  at  least  to 
grammar  grades,  —  a  system  of  waterworks  for 
securing  pure  water,  a  drainage  plan,  clean  streets, 
public  parks,  buildings,  and  conveniences,  the  plants 
of  electric,  telephone,  and  other  companies,  markets 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY        2$ 

and  healthful  food  supplies  free  from  adulteration, 
public  health  and  sanitation,  infectious  diseases  and 
hospitals,  temperance  and  alcoholism,  the  fire  de- 
partment, and  safe  construction  of  large  buildings, 
theatres,  etc.  Many  of  these  topics  are  of  both  public 
and  private  concern,  as  waterworks,  drainage  system, 
and  electric  lights.  The  curiosity  which  children 
feel  about  town  affairs  should  be  led  over  into  these 
vitally  important  topics. 

3.  The   school  itself  is  becoming   a   much   more 
important    centre    of    practical    science.     Its    play- 
ground  and    gymnasium   for    physical   training,   its 
school  garden   and    tree   planting,    its  well-planned 
arrangements  for  heating,  ventilation,   lighting,  and 
seating    of    schoolrooms,  and   its    general    sanitary 
condition,  its  thoughtful  regard  for  physical  defects 
of  eye,  ear,    etc.,  are   becoming   models  of  the   sci- 
entific mode  of  bringing  up  children.    These  things, 
apart  from  any  regular  science  lessons,  should  pro- 
duce an  atmosphere  favorable  to  science,  in  which 
scientific  ideas  are  respected  and  applied.     The  other 
school  studies,  also,  especially  geography  and  history, 
by  constant  interesting  reference  to  scientific  topics, 
contribute  powerfully  to  a  respectful  attitude  toward 
science.     In  fact,  the  school  should  become  more  and 
more   a  scientific   institution,  not   so  much  because 
science  is  taught  as  a  branch  of  the  curriculum,  as 
because  scientific  ideas   are   there   made   to  prevail. 

4.  In  wild  nature  itself,  away  from  town  or  school, 


26        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

there  are  a  few  natural  large  units,  such  as  the  forest, 
the  pond  or  river,  the  roadside  (the  seaside  or  the 
mountain  slope  in  some  sections  of  the  country), 
which  are  likewise  familiar  to  the  children  and  with 
growing  years  become  more  and  more  attractive  cen- 
tres of  interest.  The  sports,  excursions,  picnics,  and 
later  the  hunting  trips,  lead  the  children  and  youth 
yearly  and  with  the  changes  of  seasons  to  these 
familiar  and  attractive  places.  The  school  has  natu- 
rally taken  advantage  of  these  refreshing  lines  of 
experience,  early  established  and  long  continued,  and 
is  planting  its  lessons  where  they  will  find  the  best 
soil  and  nourishment. 

Curiously  enough,  these  most  frequented  resorts  of 
children  are  likewise  what  scientists  now  call  life 
groups,  or  life  societies  in  nature ;  and  there  is  now 
a  strong  tendency  in  higher  schools  to  centre  scien- 
tific studies  upon  a  few  of  these  life  groups,  rather 
than  upon  single  specimens  of  plant,  animal,  or 
physical  phenomenon.  The  reason  for  this  is,  of 
course,  the  close  interdependence  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  forms  and  the  physical  forces  which  make 
up  one  of  these  groups.  Both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe  life  societies  are  now  assuming  an  important 
role  in  nature  study. 

A  few  of  these  life  groups,  as  we  have  just  seen, 
by  a  natural  process  of  selection,  are  the  chosen 
centres  of  children's  interest  and  activity.  These 
life  groups,  therefore,  seem  to  be  natural  pedagogical, 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY       27 

as  well  as  scientific,  centres  and  units.  This  falls  in, 
also,  with  the  idea  that  the  units  that  attract  children 
are  large  and  complex.  For  example,  the  plant  and 
animal  life  gathered  at  a  pond  and  changing  with  the 
rolling  seasons  is  known  to  form  a  natural  loadstone 
to  children's  minds  and  bodies.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  woods,  the  rocky  hillside,  or  the  lake 
shore. 

5.  A  few  of  the  primary  human  occupations  have 
also  become  natural  rendezvous  in  elementary  science. 
The  farm,  with  the  problems  and  interests  of  agricul- 
ture, is  one  of  these.  The  quality  of  soils,  the  food 
plants  and  their  cultivation,  the  weeds,  insects  and 
other  animals  damaging  to  the  crops,  the  raising, 
care,  and  feeding  of  farm  stock,  the  weather  condi- 
tions, the  rotation  of  crops,  the  machines  and  inven- 
tions needed  for  economic  farming,  now  centre  upon 
the  farmer's  work  many  important  results  of  scien- 
tific knowledge. 

Agriculture  has  always  been  regarded  among  civil- 
ized people  as  the  most  common  and  universal  of 
human  occupations,  from  which  all  persons  of  other 
trades  or  of  no  trades  draw  subsistence.  If,  now,  we 
associate  gardening,  the  orchard,  fruit-raising,  and  for- 
estry with  farming,  as  closely  allied  industries  of  the 
soil,  we  have  a  group  of  topics  of  direct  interest  to 
all  children.  So  important  is  gardening  and  fruit- 
growing, that  school  gardening  and  tree  planting  and 
culture  are  already  demanding  attention  in  many 


28        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

schools  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  schoolhouse  sur- 
roundings and  of  the  course  of  study.  At  a  glance  it 
is  plain  that  raising  vegetables  and  fruit  trees  in  a 
school  garden,  combined  with  questions  of  soil  and  its 
fertilization,  of  noxious  insects  and  grubs,  of  condi- 
tions of  heat  and  moisture,  means  the  direct  introduc- 
tion of  a  whole  series  of  valuable  science  topics  into 
school  studies.  These  topics  may  be  already  in  the 
school  course,  but  linking  them  with  the  actual  work 
of  children  in  the  school  garden  and  in  their  home 
gardens  may  give  them  a  meaning  and  force  they 
have  not  hitherto  had.  Farming,  gardening,  fruit- 
raising,  and  forestry,  reenforced  by  the  discoveries 
and  experience  of  scientific  experts,  bring  out  dis- 
tinctly some  of  the  best  lessons  in  botany,  zoology, 
and  geology,  while  physics,  chemistry,  and  meteo- 
rology are  perhaps  equally  in  evidence. 

There  are  a  few  other  primary  occupations,  as 
coal  and  other  mining,  textile  manufacture,  fishing, 
and  modes  of  transportation,  which  are  important 
centres  for  the  application  of  scientific  knowledge. 

These  few  topics  (home,  school,  town,  the  life 
societies,  and  the  primary  occupations)  are  the  pro- 
nounced centres  of  interest  in  the  child's  environ- 
ment where  the  soil  is  prolific  in  valuable  science 
topics.  They  are  the  chief  centres  of  the  child's 
own  life,  and  they  remain  so  through  life,  so  that  the 
focussing  of  many  lessons  in  each  of  these  centres 
has  a  permanent  basis. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY       2Q 

A  still  further  and  complete  reduction  of  this 
home  environment  of  the  child  to  its  simplest  ele- 
ments is  secured  by  the  use  of  types  as  lesser  cen- 
tres of  study.  These  types  include  life  histories  of 
plant  and  animal,  objects  and  phenomena  in  physi- 
cal science,  and  processes  and  inventions  in  applied 
science.  We  have  discussed  elsewhere  the  meaning 
and  value  of  these  types.  While  the  types  are  of 
less  striking  importance  in  primary  grades,  their  value 
becomes  greater  and  greater  as  we  advance  in  the 
course,  and  they  lead  up  unmistakably  to  such  classi- 
fications and  laws  in  nature  as  children  are  able  to 
grasp.  The  purpose  of  pure  science  is  to  simplify 
and  organize  the  apparent  diversity  of  things  in  nature 
and  the  type  studies  are  the  safe  pedagogical  route 
to  this  result. 

Let  us  now  make  a  summary  of  the  movement  by 
which  we  get  a  simplified  science  course. 

1.  A  strong  emphasis  of  the  neighborhood  environ- 
ment of  children. 

2.  A  concentration  of  effort  upon  a  few  natural 
centres  in  this  little  world  of  the  child  (home,  town, 
school,  life  societies,  and  primary  occupations). 

3.  The  selection  of  the  best  available  types  out 
of  these  neighborhood  groups  as  the  real  units  of 
class-room   study   (life  histories,   objects,   processes, 
inventions). 

If  this  plan  of  simplifying  the  science  course  is 
based  upon  a  proper  estimate  of  the  powers  of 


3O        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

children  and  of  the  nature  of  the  science  materials, 
it  will  enable  us  to  escape  from  the  yoke  of  bondage 
which  the  sciences  as  such,  in  their  classified  form, 
would  impose  upon  us. 

The  scientist  who  is  making  a  formal  text-book 
for  the  schools  is  controlled  by  a  point  of  view  and 
an  authority  which  stands  at  a  wholly  different  and 
far-removed  centre  of  operations  from  the  above. 
The  little  environment  in  which  the  child  lives  is 
such  a  tiny  and  particularized  fragment  of  tKe 
whole  field,  that  the  scientist  who  surveys  the  whole 
from  the  standpoint  of  general  principles  has  not  his 
eye  focussed  to  see  the  child  at  all,  nor  his  little 
world. 

Another  curious  fact  is  that  when  the  scientist 
gets  down  to  what  he  terms  simple  principles  or 
primary  elements  of  his  science,  he  is  still  as  far 
away  from  a  child  as  if  he  had  remained  in  the 
field  of  broad,  general  concepts.  In  fact  he  is  still 
in  this  field  without  knowing  it.  A  child  does  not 
want  the  alphabet  (that  is,  the  simple  principles)  of 
science  any  more  than  he  wants  the  names  of  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet  when  learning  to  read.  What 
a  child  wants,  of  course,  is  to  better  interpret  those 
things  around  him  with  which  he  already  is  most 
familiar.  He  possesses  the  alphabet  of  science  in  his 
knowledge  of  things ;  what  he  needs  is  to  observe 
more  closely  and  to  put  things  together  for  better 
interpretation. 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY       31 

The  topic  which  a  child  encounters  in  his  home 
or  in  some  other  centre  of  experience  lies  embedded 
in  its  surroundings,  —  if  you  please,  in  the  very  thicket 
and  jungle  of  things;  but  it  is  a  familiar  jungle,  and 
one  in  which  and  from  which  the  child  is  construct- 
ing his  own  habitation.  It  was  by  hewing  down  the 
trees  of  the  forest  that  the  pioneer  found  a  place  for 
his  cottage,  and  let  in  the  sunshine  to  reveal  the 
richness  of  the  soil  for  producing  corn  and  pumpkins. 
Each  child  likewise  is  hewing  about  him  to  make  a 
clearing  large  enough  for  his  home  and  needs.  We 
have  seen  that  science  topics  spring  up  in  the  home 
as  thick  as  plants  and  weeds  in  the  garden.  To 
grapple  with  these  things  in  the  home  environment 
is  to  meet  and  master  them  on  their  own  ground. 

There  is  another  great  advantage  in  taking  science 
where  we  find  it  in  these  centres  of  life's  activity,  and 
not  in  some  isolated  scientific  form  in  laboratories  or 
text-books.  The  child  who  draws  his  knowledge  of 
science  directly  from  life,  under  usual  conditions, 
will  not  have  much  difficulty  in  finding  it  again  in 
life  and  applying  it  to  life.  It  is  not  difficult  to  so 
isolate  the  study  of  physics  and  chemistry,  or  even 
botany  and  zoology,  from  the  usual  conditions  of  life 
that  the  student  in  after  years  will  have  more  diffi- 
culty in  rediscovering  his  knowledge  than  he  had  in 
first  acquiring  it.  But  the  child  who  learns  from  the 
start  to  trace  facts  to  their  native  lair  will  recognize 
them  again  under  similar  surroundings. 


32        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

In  the  usual  study  of  the  natural  sciences,  each 
science  centres  its  materials  around  its  leading  prin- 
ciples, but  from  the  home  as  a  centre  radiate  prob- 
lems into  all  of  the  sciences:  proper  ventilation  is 
based  on  physics  and  physiology;  proper  cooking 
refers  back  to  chemistry,  botany,  zoology,  and  to  sev- 
eral other  sciences ;  house  sanitation  draws  from  most 
of  the  sciences ;  the  heating  and  lighting  of  a  house 
carry  us  into  several  fields  of  applied  science  ;  and  so 
with  other  household  economies.  Now  it  must  seem 
clear  that  the  home  is  pedagogically  a  much  better 
centre  of  thought  for  children  than  any  one  of  the 
sciences,  and  far  better  than  all  of  them  in  their 
several  unities.  The  natural  large  units  of  thought 
must  be  those  places  where  the  greatest  body  of  the 
child's  experience  centres.  Again,  these  centres  of 
which  we  have  been  speaking  persist  from  the  begin- 
ning throughout  the  whole  of  life.  They  will  never 
need  to  be  torn  up  and  distributed  to  other  centres ; 
for  the  adult,  like  the  child,  will  still  find  in  himself, 
in  the  home,  and  in  the  common  social  interest  of  the 
community,  the  ever  strengthening  centres  of  his 
thought  and  life.  In  later  years  he  may  devote  him- 
self to  a  study  and  ordering  of  one  or  more  of  the 
separate  sciences ;  but  their  chief  merit,  after  all,  will 
be  the  service  they  are  able  to  render  to  these  afore- 
named original  centres  of  human  interest  and  action. 

In  a  similar  way,  but  on  a  smaller  scale,  each  man's 
trade  or  business  is  an  organizing  nucleus.  Each 


PLANNING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY        33 

human  occupation,  like  farming  or  coal  mining,  is  a 
natural  practical  centre  from  which  radiate  a  goodly 
number  of  science  problems.  The  farmer,  whether 
he  is  dealing  with  machines  (physics)  or  soils  (geology) 
or  plants  and  animals  (botany  and  zoology)  or  with 
weather  conditions  (meteorology),  needs  for  imme- 
diate purposes  the  help  and  knowledge  which  the, 
scientist  has  garnered.  Why  is  it  not  good  for  t 
child  to  take  the  farmer's  standpoint,  and  from  this 
position  look  for  advice  from  the  sciences  ?  It  seems 
to  me  that  there  are  great  advantages  in  this  starting- 
point  and  in  this  attitude  toward  science.  It  is  the 
genuine  situation  as  practical  life  presents  it.  It  gives 
the  child  the  right  motive  for  investigation.  It  takes 
him  where  we  find  him,  for  he  has  already  been 
studying  about  the  farmer  in  his  geography  lessons. 
In  his  own  and  in  the  school  garden  he  has  met  with 
similar  problems  of  the  soil  and  of  plant  life. 

Again,  from  the  standpoint  of  very  important 
social  and  industrial  aims  in  education,  including 
manual  training,  there  is  a  very  strong  and  active 
impulse  among  educators  to  concentrate  instruction 
upon  a  few  typical  occupations.  What  carpentry 
and  woodwork  are  and  always  will  be  for  indoor 
shop  work,  the  garden  and  farm  will  be  for  the  out- 
door industrial  life.  It  seems  highly  desirable  that 
the  whole  group  of  employments  connected  with 
gardening,  fruit  culture,  and  to  some  extent  with  farm- 
ing, should  be  directly  associated  as  much  as  possible 


34        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

with  the  work  of  the  common  schools.  The  pro- 
vision of  a  garden  for  every  school  is  bound  to  be  a 
live  question  for  every  teacher. 

If  we  should  take  each  of  the  natural  sciences  as  a 
controlling  centre  of  study,  we  should  have  a  com- 
plicated and  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  course  of  study 
for  elementary  schools.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
allow  ourselves  to  range  unchecked  through  any  and 
all  fields  of  science,  picking  up  whatever  comes,  we 
shall  have  no  course  of  study  at  all,  at  least  none 
which  can  serve  as  a  basis  for  systematic  planning 
and  careful  preparation  of  teachers,  none  which  can 
be  followed  consecutively  by  one  school  and  by  dif- 
ferent schools. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   BASIS    FOR    SELECTING    AND    ARRANGING   TOPICS 
FOR   THE    COURSE   OF    STUDY 

WE  may  now  inquire  into  the  grounds  upon  which 
a  selection  and  arrangement  of  topics  for  a  course  of 
study  in  the  eight  grades  can  be  based.  A  number 
of  considerations  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  in 
making  this  selection.  As  nearly  as  we  can  define 
them  they  are  as  follows :  — 

i.  The  commonest  objects  of  the  home  should 
have  the  first  place.  The  common  weeds,  as  the 
burdock  and  thistle,  are  better  than  exotics.  The 
things  we  trample  under  foot  are  quite  as  wonderful 
as  anything  in  India  or  Japan.  These  commonplace 
things  should  be  made  the  real  eye-openers  for 
children.  When  properly  approached,  they  give  the 
true  basis  for  close  observation  and  examination. 
They  should  come  first,  also,  because  they  are  the 
proper  preparation  for  the  study  of  more  distant  ob- 
jects. The  home  also  furnishes  a  sufficient  variety 
of  good  types  for  the  various  fields  of  nature  study. 
Elementary  science,  more  perhaps  than  any  other 
study,  is  home-abiding  and  begets  respect  and  admi- 
ration for  common  things. 

35 


36        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

2.  The  study  of  plant  and  animal  life  seems  pecul- 
iarly appropriate  to  children  in  the  earlier  years  of 
school.     They  like  especially  the  activities  of  animals, 
the  observation  of  their  movements  among  the  trees, 
in   the   air,    or   in   water.     Of  all  things   in  nature, 
animal   life   comes    closer   to   the   children   because 
they  find  so  many  likenesses  to  their  own  activities. 
Plants  and  flowers  also  attract  them,  and  they  love 
the   changes   and   processes   of   growth,    the   seeds, 
flowers,  roots,  fruits,  and  uses  of    natural  products. 
There  is  a  sort  of  personal  interest  in  the  study  of 
animal   or   plant   that  is   lacking  in  other  forms  of 
nature  study.     The  seedling  plant  grows,  feeds,  and 
develops  as  does  the  child.     It  has  its  dangers  and 
enemies,  its  childhood,  maturity,  and  old  age,  its  win- 
ter and  summer.     For  a  child  to  trace  the  butterfly 
from   the  egg  through  its  processes  of  change  and 
final  perfection  in  the  insect  state  is  an  interesting 
biography. 

The  study  of  plants  and  animals  will  hold  an  im- 
portant place  throughout  the  course,  but  other  stud- 
ies become  increasingly  important  in  intermediate 
and  grammar  grades,  so  that  relatively  less  time  will 
be  given  to  biology. 

3.  Topics    from    the   physical   sciences   (physics, 
chemistry,    meteorology,    geology,    and    astronomy) 
have  an  increased  importance  as  we  advance  in  the 
grades.     Some  of  the  simpler  phases  can  be  taught 
in  primary  grades,  but  most  of  these  topics  are  of 


SELECTING   AND   ARRANGING   TOPICS  37 

such  difficulty  as  to  belong  later  in  the  course.  The 
various  applications  of  science  to  life,  as  machines, 
inventions,  and  sanitary  arrangements,  begin  in 
fourth  and  fifth  grades,  and  become  increasingly 
important  as  we  advance.  Lessons  in  physiology, 
cooking,  and  temperance  are  chiefly  suited  to  the 
intermediate  and  grammar  school.  In  all  these  cases 
a  careful  grading  of  topics  according  to  their  diffi- 
culty and  suitableness  is  necessary. 

4.  In  laying  out  a  course  of  study  on  broad  and 
simple  lines,  we  should  observe  that  certain  large 
topics  are  continuous  from  year  to  year  through  the 
grades,  and  they  need  to  be  arranged  on  some  sim- 
ple plan  of  development  from  easy  to  more  difficult. 
For  example,  the  lessons  in  physiology  can  be  dis- 
tributed through  the  grades  from  primary  to  gram- 
mar school  somewhat  as  follows :  foods  and  the 
teeth,  the  skin  and  its  uses  to  the  body,  the  eyes  and 
ears  and  their  proper  care,  the  digestive  system, 
the  heart  and  circulation,  respiration,  the  brain  and 
nervous  system.  The  topics  on  temperance  and 
cooking  and  useful  inventions  should  be  arranged 
in  a  similar  advancing  series.  The  topics  derived 
from  each  of  the  five  home  centres  (home,  town, 
school,  life  societies,  and  primary  occupations)  should 
form  several  series,  developing  through  the  grades. 
For  example,  the  pond  as  a  life  group  may  furnish 
a  succession  of  topics  through  intermediate  and 
grammar  grades  as  follows :  pond  life  in  the  fall 


38        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(a  general  observation  of  plants  and  animals,  willow, 
sedges,  rushes,  etc.).  Pond  life  in  the  fall  (special 
study  of  turtle,  muskrat,  and  mussels),  aquarium. 
The  pond  in  the  spring  (special  study  of  frog). 
Water  birds,  as  duck,  grebe,  snipe,  rail,  etc.  Pond 
in  the  fall  (fishes  and  use  of  aquarium).  Insect 
life  in  the  pond  (giant  water-bugs,  dragon-flies,  fairy 
shrimp,  mosquito,  diving-beetle,  metamorphosis  of 
insects,  etc.).  Construction  and  management  of 
aquarium.  The  pond  as  a  life  society.  The  pond 
in  winter.  Study  of  minute  animal  forms,  as  Daph- 
nia,  Cyclops.  Thus  the  pond  studied  at  different 
seasons  and  with  a  special  emphasis  on  new  topics  in 
successive  years  gradually  grows  in  interest  and  reveals 
the  conditions  and  laws  which  prevail  in  a  life  group. 

The  advantages  of  this  serial  arrangement  in  each 
large  subject  are  many.  It  gives  specific  emphasis 
to  new  and  interesting  topics  each  year.  It  fur- 
nishes excellent  opportunity  for  instructive  review 
without  the  dulness  of  mere  repetition  from  year  to 
year.  It  prepares  the  children  gradually  for  more 
difficult  problems  in  succeeding  grades. 

5.  The  season  of  the  year  must  determine  to  a 
large  extent  the  best  time  for  the  study  of  plants  and 
animals  and  many  other  topics.  The  budding  and 
blossoming  of  the  trees  must  be  noted  in  the  early 
spring.  The  bees  can  be  studied  in  spring  or  fall ; 
the  spring  plants  may  be  dug  up  in  springtime ;  the 
seeds  and  pods  are  best  noticed  in  autumn ;  the  ever- 


SELECTING   AND    ARRANGING    TOPICS  3Q 

greens  may  be  taken  in  winter  and  spring.  Of 
course,  any  given  tree  or  plant  needs  to  be  traced 
through  the  season ;  the  robin  should  be  seen  on  his 
spring  return,  in  the  nesting  season,  and  when  he 
returns  to  the  South  in  autumn. 

The  winter  season  is  the  favorable  time  for  the 
study  of  many  topics  from  the  physical  sciences  and 
from  practical  applications,  inventions,  etc.;  also  from 
temperance,  cooking,  and  other  topics  which  do  not 
require  outdoor  labors  and  excursions.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  about  one-half  of  the  school  year 
in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  belongs  to  the 
winter  months,  where  the  chief  emphasis  must  be 
placed  upon  indoor  science  studies. 

The  relation  of  the  spring  studies  to  the  fall  studies 
brings  up  quite  an  interesting  and  important  prob- 
lem. A  number  of  topics  which  are  begun  in  the 
spring  need  to  be  continued  through  the  summer 
and  fall.  This  is  true  in  plant,  insect,  and  bird  life, 
and  in  the  study  of  pond,  forest,  and  field.  But  the 
long  summer  vacation  interrupts  this  plan,  and  in  the 
fall  a  child  enters  a  new  grade  with  a  new  teacher 
(at  least  in  many  cases).  The  life  history  of  many 
plants  and  insects  is  bounded  by  the  single  season, 
and  should  be  continuous  from  spring  to  fall.  The 
succession  of  changes  brought  by  the  circle  of  the 
seasons  in  many  cases  furnishes  the  best  units  of 
study,  as  in  the  corn  plant,  the  wild  duck,  and  the 
forest  trees. 


4O        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

By  an  examination  of  our  course  of  study  it  will  be 
seen  that  many  important  topics  are  carried  over 
from  the  spring  into  the  fall.  In  such  cases  we 
assume  that  teachers  are  able  to  look  back  across  the 
summer  vacation  and  to  know  effectively  what  was 
done  by  the  class  in  the  previous  spring  under 
another  teacher.  This  is  required  in  other  studies. 
Why  not  in  science  ? 

In  selecting  science  topics  according  to  the  sea- 
sons, there  is  much  danger  of  studying  the  same 
topics  from  year  to  year  till  their  repetition  becomes 
tiresome.  This  is  often  true  where  no  course  is 
arranged  for  the  grades,  and  teachers  from  year  to 
year  select  and  work  over  the  same  familiar  subjects. 
In  a  properly  arranged  course  new  objects  will  be 
made  the  centre  of  study,  and  the  old  ones  will  serve 
for  interesting  comparison  and  review.  A  wisely 
arranged  course  extending  through  the  grades  may 
constantly  enrich  the  old  topics  by  new  studies  taken 
from  the  same  seasons  and  environment. 

6.  Other  studies,  especially  history,  geography, 
and  literature,  often  suggest  the  best  place  for  the 
treatment  of  science  topics.  The  literature  of  pri- 
mary grades  freshens  up  many  topics  from  plant 
and  animal  life.  Hiawatha,  Robinson  Crusoe,  and 
the  myths  are  very  suggestive  of  outdoor  scenes 
and  useful  inventions.  The  pioneer  history  stories 
abound  in  the  scenery  and  objects  of  the  natural 
world.  The  geography  of  the  same  years  deals  pre- 


SELECTING   AND   ARRANGING   TOPICS  4! 

eminently  with  natural  forms  and  products,  and  with 
those  scientific  inventions  and  processes  by  which 
man  has  learned  how  to  use  them.  In  history  we 
find  that  many  scientific  machines  and  discoveries 
have  had  an  important  influence  on  progress.  We 
have  explained  elsewhere  the  fact  that  geography 
and  history  prepare  the  ground  for  science  topics, 
and  that  the  science  lessons  in  many  cases  are 
merely  a  continuation,  from  a  scientific  point  of 
view,  of  topics  which  were  begun  but  could  not  be 
completed  by  those  studies. 

These  considerations  have  influenced  us  in  choosing 
and  locating  a  number  of  topics,  though  it  may  not 
appear  without  examining  the  courses  in  the  other 
studies.  The  course  of  study  in  the  Special  Method 
in  Manual  Training'will  show  that  many  of  its  topics 
are  continuations  of  science  topics,  so  that  the  science 
course  both  gives  and  receives  aid  in  its  relations  to 
other  studies. 

7.  The  careful  selection  of  suitable  types  will  much 
reduce  the  number  of  topics  to  be  treated  in  all  the 
grades.  A  clear  insight  into  the  controlling  forces  in 
nature  and  in  human  affairs  is  also  more  easily  gained 
through  type  studies. 

It  is  well  to  make  a  full  and  careful  study  of  one 
of  the  rodents,  as  the  fox-squirrel,  with  the  descrip- 
tive detail  of  his  nest,  habits  in  summer  and  winter, 
his  food  and  rearing  of  the  young,  his  enemies  and 
devices  for  escaping  them,  his  noises  and  movements 


42         SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

in  climbing  and  running,  his  fur  and  its  uses,  the 
make  of  his  teeth  and  claws  as  suited  to  their  uses, 
and  his  kinship  with  other  squirrels.  Such  a  biog- 
raphy of  individual  and  family  life  among  squirrels 
gives  not  only  a  graphic  picture  of  this  little  animal, 
but  allows  a  variety  of  observation  and  comparison 
with  other  animals,  similar  or  contrasted,  that  may 
be  incidental  yet  valuable.  In  the  same  way  the 
cow  among  ruminants  becomes  a  type  of  that  order, 
the  milkweed  butterfly  among  butterflies,  the  maple 
or  oak  among  trees,  the  dandelion  or  thistle  or  sun- 
flower among  composite  flowers.  The  type  form, 
when  fully  described  in  its  continuous  life  history,  is 
not  only  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  object  to 
children,  because  of  the  abundance  of  attractive  de- 
tail, but  it  is  a  key  to  the  understanding  of  a  multi- 
tude of  similar  or  related  plants  or  animals.  The 
study  of  the  cat,  for  example,  as  to  retractile  claws, 
eyes,  and  muscular  and  bony  structure,  gives  a  clear 
view  of  a  whole  group  of  animals.  A  brief  compari- 
son of  the  domestic  cat  with  the  tiger,  wildcat,  etc., 
is  all  that  is  needed  to  make  the  knowledge  fairly 
complete.  Without  the  guidance  of  these  larger 
units  or  type  forms,  the  topics  chosen  by  teachers 
are  often  very  partial  or  miscellaneous.  For  example, 
the  study  and  comparison  of  leaves  on  trees,  the  com- 
parison of  twigs,  and  the  arrangement  of  buds  and 
twigs,  or  leaves,  on  the  stem.  Such  topics  come  up 
incidentally  and  naturally  in  the  handling  of  a  type. 


SELECTING   AND   ARRANGING   TOPICS  43 

The  objection  of  some  writers  to  this  use  of  types 
seems  to  be  based  upon  the  mistaken  idea  that  the 
type  is  equivalent  to  a  general  notion  or  abstrac- 
tion, and  that  children  are  pushed  prematurely  into 
abstract  thinking.  There  is  some  ground  for  this 
criticism,  especially  in  the  work  of  the  earlier  years. 
But  the  superabundance  of  concrete  material,  the 
demand  for  comparisons  and  for  the  tracing  out  of 
causal  relations,  are  quite  sufficient  to  overcome  this 
objection.  The  conversion  of  types  into  mere  abstrac- 
tions is  a  perversion  of  the  whole  plan. 

The  selection  of  a  few  important  type  studies,  each 
of  which  is  to  be  worked  out  in  full  detail,  has  the 
following  advantages :  — 

(a)  Each  type  is  an  important  centre  of  thought 
around  which  to   associate  a  large   body  of   related 
material. 

(b)  Each   type   is   the   representative   of   a  large 
class  of  more  or  less  similar  objects  (basis  of  broad 
classification). 

(V)  Great  abundance  of  concrete  material  is 
gathered  about  each  type  object,  contributing  to 
interest  and  clear  perception. 

(d)  A  continuous  biographical  study  of  life  history 
or  development  has  strong,  consecutive  force. 

(e)  The  deeper  causal  and  vital  relations  that  bind 
plant  or  animal  to  its  environment  can  only  be  traced 
out  by  this  detailed  study  of  a  single  important  object. 

(/)  A  single   important  topic  is  kept  before  the 


44        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

children  long  enough  not  only  to  gather  up  a  varied 
collection  of  experimental  knowledge  about  it,  but  to 
organize  it,  and  to  bring  it  into  relation  to  other  topics 
in  all  the  studies. 

(g)  The  type  studies  pave  the  way  to  a  recog- 
nition of  general  laws  in  natural  phenomena  which 
give  the  most  comprehensive  views.  This  process  of 
working  up  to  an  understanding  of  the  general  laws 
of  nature  is  so  important  that  we  will  consider  it 
separately. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    GRADUAL    APPROACHES   TO    SCIENCE 

ONE  of  the  ever  present  problems  in  the  mind  of 
the  thoughtful  teacher  in  elementary  science  is  that 
of  the  amount  of  science  proper  resulting  from  such 
instruction.  How  much  pure  science  in  the  form  of 
classifications  and  laws  should  pupils  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  acquire  ?  Perhaps  it  may  be  truly  said 
that  theorists  and  book-makers  require  too  much 
science,  and  teachers  and  pupils  get  too  little. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  the  two  extremes,  that  of 
burdening  the  Children  prematurely  with  classified 
knowledge  and  that  of  giving  loose,  helter-skelter 
information  about  all  sorts  of  science  topics. 

As  a  rule,  teachers  are  overhasty  in  urging  chil- 
dren toward  generalizations ;  they  wish  them  to  leap 
from  one  or  two  facts  or  examples  to  important  con- 
clusions or  classifications.  The  teacher  should  keep 
these  things  in  the  background  of  her  own  mind  to 
serve  as  general  aims  which  she  has  plenty  of  time  to 
work  out.  At  the  same  time  instruction  must  keep 
these  landmarks  of  the  scientific  movement  clearly  in 
view.  From  this  consideration  the  following  passage 
translated  from  Junge  as  quoted  by  Rein  may  be 
suggestive  to  teachers. 

45 


46        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

Children  are  to  acquire  gradually  an  insight  into 
the  unity  that  prevails  in  nature.  At  first  the  end- 
less variety  of  objects  and  activities  in  nature  gives 
a  child  no  notion  of  the  underlying  harmony  and 
connection  of  the  varied  parts;  but  as  the  insight 
into  wide-reaching  laws  is  revealed  to  him  he  finds 
strong  links  of  union,  binding  all  the  parts  into  one. 

This  unity  shows  itself  in  the  life  of  any  plant  or 
animal,  in  the  laws  which  govern  its  internal  organi- 
zation and  external  adaptation  of  organs  to  environ- 
ment. 

Junge,  as  quoted  by  Rein,  presents  this  unity  in 
nature  based  upon  laws  as  follows  :  — 

"  Life  is  characterized  first  of  all  by  the  fact  of 
movement  either  of  the  inner  parts  of  a  body  (its 
constituents)  or  of  the  external  parts  or  organs. 

"Through  this  movement  is  brought  about  (i)  the 
growth  and  development  of  an  individual  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  stage  of  completeness  ;  (2)  the 
preservation  of  the  thing  itself.  The  indwelling 
effort  of  all  the  parts  or  members  toward  the  preser- 
vation and  perfection  of  the  whole  is  the  life  principle 
(law  of  preservation,  accommodation  —  of  organic  har- 
mony, of  development).  Let  the  impulse  to  harmony 
of  inner  or  external  movements  cease,  there  enters  a 
condition  of  decay  and  death. 

"  Life  in  nature  is  a  unit  not  simply  as  far  as  each 
organism  constitutes  a  unity,  but  also  so  far  as  an 
agreement  shows  itself  in  the  inner  causes  of  life 


THE   GRADUAL   APPROACHES   TO   SCIENCE  47 

activities  in  different  individuals,  that  is,  so  far  as 
laws  manifest  themselves.  The  laws  prevailing  in 
individuals  have  at  least  a  strong  resemblance  to 
those  which  rule  in  a  whole  group  of  individuals,  a 
life  society  (even  the  earth  considered  as  such), 
though  the  laws  are  not  just  the  same. 

"  Should  we  inquire  upon  what  road  a  knowledge 
of  the  facts  and  changes  in  nature,  both  in  single 
things  and  in  more  complex  wholes,  may  be  reached, 
a  brief  consideration  will  give  us  a  ready  answer. 
The  simpler,  i.e.,  the  less  intensive  and  extensive 
life  displays  itself,  the  more  easily  can  the  laws  of 
its  manifestations  be  recognized.  They  are  more 
easily  perceived  in  the  changes  of  inorganic  than  in 
those  of  organic  nature.  The  life  of  a  lower  organ- 
ism is  more  easily  understood  than  that  of  a  higher ; 
the  life  of  a  single  organism  easier  than  that  of  a 
life  society ;  and,  finally,  the  life  of  a  group  or  life 
society,  accessible  to  observation,  more  easily  than 
one  of  the  whole  earth.  The  following  serial  order, 
therefore,  results  :  i.  observation  of  life  in  the  single 
thing  and  successive  recognition  of  the  different 
fundamental  laws ;  2.  recognition  of  the  discovered 
laws  in  small  life  groups  accessible  to  the  child's 
view ;  3.  application  of  the  laws  to  unfamiliar  ob- 
jects and  life  societies ;  4.  application  and  redis- 
covery in  the  entire  life  of  the  earth.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  satisfy  the  above-mentioned  require- 
ments in  a  strict  schematic  way.  Schematism  would 


48        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

do  violence  to  organic  development  and  comprehen- 
sion. It  is  rather  advisable  at  every  stage  of  prog- 
ress to  aim  at  a  well-rounded  whole,  and  in  view  of 
the  final  aim  to  make  use,  little  by  little,  of  the  re- 
sults springing  from  the  other  natural  sciences  as  the 
progress  of  instruction  renders  them  possible." 

In  biology,  which  furnishes  a  large  share  of  the 
topics  for  science  lessons,  there  are  two  kinds  of 
units  of  thought,  single  animals  or  plants  and  life 
groups.  The  single  animal  or  plant,  as  a  type,  we 
have  already  discussed.  The  biographical  story,  or 
life  history,  in  full,  of  such  a  plant  or  animal,  espe- 
cially when  brought  into  comparison  with  similar 
biographies  of  other  plants  or  animals,  reveals  many 
of  the  fundamental  laws  of  organic  life  in  nature. 

The  life  society  or  group  is  a  much  more  complex 
object  of  study.  It  is  not  a  systematic  group,  but  a 
natural  group  of  closely  related  and  mutually  depen- 
dent objects  in  nature.  A  natural  forest  well  illus- 
trates such  a  group,  —  the  various  forest  trees,  the 
wild  flowers  and  grasses  peculiar  to  woodsy  places, 
the  birds  and  squirrels  and  insects  that  naturally  find 
their  homes  and  food  among  the  trees.  Even  the 
soil,  moisture,  and  sunlight,  among  inorganic  things, 
contribute  to  the  conditions  for  a  mutually  dependent 
and  helpful  group  of  living  organisms.  The  birds 
depend  upon  the  trees,  the  trees  depend  on  insects 
for  the  cross-fertilization  of  flowers ;  the  bloodroot 
and  other  wild  flowers  flourish  in  the  shade  of  trees. 


THE   GRADUAL   APPROACHES   TO    SCIENCE  49 

The  study  of  the  different  members  of  this  family 
group,  and  the  study  of  the  whole  varied  family  in 
its  relations,  will  bring  out  still  other  fundamental 
laws  in  nature. 

Rein  says,  "As  the  basis  of  our  studies,  we  are 
called  upon  always  to  select  a  natural  whole ;  and 
first  of  all,  such  a  whole  is  found  in  every  single 
living  object,  for  each  is  an  organism,  i.e.,  a  thing 
whose  parts  stand  in  relation  to  one  another  and  to 
the  whole."  Nature  study,  therefore,  should  deal 
not  with  fragments,  but  with  wholes  ;  not  with  leaves 
or  buds  as  isolated  topics,  but  with  trees  or  plants  as 
wholes,  of  which  the  leaves  or  buds  are  parts.  The 
unit  of  thought  should  always  be  in  mind  and  stand 
as  the  basis  of  study.  "A  single  living  organism, 
however,  is  only  a  part  of  the  great  world  machine. 
In  many  of  its  relations  it  is  dependent  upon  other 
objects,  as  a  strip  of  earth,  etc.,  which  influence  it 
and  in  turn  are  influenced  by  it.  Thus  we  find  dif- 
ferent objects  together.  A  number  of  objects  bound 
together  by  common  or  similar  needs,  or  by  mutual 
aid  rendered,  form  a  life  society  in  which  each  one 
fills  out  its  place  and  part  in  the  whole.  These  life 
societies  are  considered  as  composed  of  organically 
connected  single  things.  When  several  such  life 
societies,  as,  for  example,  forest,  field,  swamp, 
meadow,  etc.,  whose  unity  the  children  can  survey, 
are  observed  and  their  importance  for  the  home 
brought  out  clearly,  for  which  all  taken  together 


5O        SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

constitute  a  unity,  —  by  such  observations  the  way  is 
prepared  for  an  understanding  of  the  entire  life  of 
the  earth.  Such  wholes,  whether  single  objects  or 
life  groups,  we  analyze  into  their  parts,  and  inquire 
what  parts  are  these,  what  purpose  have  they,  and 
why  so  made  and  not  differently  ?  With  a  plant 
before  us  we  notice  the  parts.  As  to  the  root,  we 
observe  not  only  its  fibres,  but  its  work,  and  why  so 
constructed;  why  different  in  sand,  or  clay,  or  in 
rich  soil.  The  leaf  is  noted  as  to  form,  also  its  func- 
tion and  the  reason  for  its  being  flattened  out ;  why 
in  water-plants  it  is  modified  by  the  depth  of  the 
water;  why  in  land  plants  it  is  sometimes  hairy, 
sometimes  hairless.  So,  also,  in  the  study  of  ani- 
mals. Organ  and  function  should  always  be  brought 
into  the  closest  relation.  So  we  come  to  understand 
why  a  foot  is  modified  to  adapt  it  to  a  changed  pur- 
pose, as  a  webbed  foot,  a  wing,  or  a  hand  for  grasp- 
ing; why  the  skeleton  of  birds,  for  example,  is 
different  from  that  of  mammals." 

By  the  constant  emphasis  of  the  correlation  be- 
tween organ  and  function,  the  child's  mind  is  kept 
awake  to  the  fact  that  he  has  to  do  with  a  living 
thing,  for  the  eye  must  pass  from  the  construction  of 
the  organ  to  its  use  in  life,  and  vice  versa.  In  the 
second  place,  we  satisfy  the  demand  for  causality, 
which  is  really  the  impulsive  element  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  human  mind.  That  this  is  present  in 
the  child  is  manifest  in  his  many  "  whys." 


THE   GRADUAL    APPROACHES   TO    SCIENCE  51 

The  discovery  of  these  laws  and  causal  relations 
between  objects  and  life  groups  in  nature  reveals  in 
a  striking  way  the  total  inadequacy  of  a  method  of 
science  study  which  isolates  the  different  sciences, 
as  botany  or  zoology,  and  tries  to  build  up  a  system 
and  classification  of  each  by  itself.  In  the  biography 
of  any  animal  or  plant,  and  also  in  the  life  societies, 
the  vital  organic  relations  between  plants,  animals, 
minerals,  sunlight,  etc.,  are  cross-sections  in  the 
sciences,  which  disregard  our  efforts  at  isolation  and 
artificial  system  making.  It  is  in  these  interrelations 
of  the  different  sciences  that  we  find  the  deeper  and 
more  instructive  causes  operating  in  nature.  Classi- 
fications in  botany  or  zoology  are  important,  but  the 
study  of  causes  acting  between  different  sciences  is 
often  more  significant,  instructive,  and  stimulating. 

"  So  long  as  no  law  has  been  worked  out,  the 
teacher  must  be  the  guide  in  making  observations. 
The  laws,  or  rather  the  final  aim  of  the  natural 
science  instruction,  must  be  ever  present  to  his 
thought,  whether  he  be  selecting  the  material  of 
instruction  or  employed  in  its  treatment.  When  a 
law  has  been  once  recognized,  then  in  many  cases 
it  may  assume  the  leadership;  it  gives  direction  to 
present  undertakings  as  well  as  to  future  observa- 
tions and  experiments.  Pupils  now  examine  living 
creatures  according  to  the  measure  of  one  or  more 
laws ;  they  begin  to  investigate  the  question  whether, 
in  a  given  creature,  manner  of  life,  habitat,  and 


52        SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

structure  of  organs  correspond,  or  whether  an  organ- 
ism develops  from  a  simpler  form  up  to  a  stage  of 
completeness,"  etc.  (Rein.) 

The  last  sentence  suggests  the  two  simple  fun- 
damental laws  by  which  most  of  the  phenomena  of 
organic  life  (plant  and  animal)  may  be  interpreted, 
and  a  deep  insight  gained  into  life  processes. 

1.  Manner  of  life,  habitat,  and  structure  of  organs 
correspond.      Every   animal    or   plant   is   peculiarly 
adapted  by  its  organs  and  mode  of  life  to  its  envi- 
ronment.    To  discover  and  trace  out  this  law  in  the 
varied  and  widely  divergent  forms  of  life,  is  one  of  the 
most  instructive  and  permanently  stimulating  thoughts 
in  nature  study.     Law  of  physiological  purpose. 

2.  Every  organism  develops  from  the  simple  up  to 
the  stage  of  completeness.     Here  again,  to  trace  the 
life  history  through  its  successive  stages  of  growth 
up    to    maturity,   reproduction,    and    decay,    reveals 
amidst  endless  variations  a  sameness  and  constancy 
of  life  processes  which  make  nature's  work  almost 
wonderful  in  its  simplicity.     Law  of  development. 

Still  other  important  laws  which  may  develop  out 
of  thoughtful  nature  studies  are  taken  from  Junge, 
as  follows :  — 

3.  Manner  of  life  and   structure  of  organs  adapt 
themselves,  within  certain  limits,  to  a  changed  habi- 
tat or  set  of  relations.     Beyond  these  limits  follows 
the   death   or  crippling   of   the  organism.      Law  of 
adaptation  or  accommodation. 


THE   GRADUAL   APPROACHES   TO    SCIENCE  53 

4.  The  more  the  whole  work  is  distributed  to  dif- 
ferent organs  the  more  perfect  is  its  execution.  Or, 
the  more  numerous  the  organs  for  different  services 
the  more  perfectly  can  each  organ  perform  its  special 
service.  Law  of  division  of  labor. 

We  have  dwelt  somewhat  at  length  upon  these 
biological  laws  because  they  serve  so  well  to  illus- 
trate the  possibility  of  making  such  a  study  of  nature 
in  the  organic  as  well  as  in  the  inorganic  world  as 
will  lead  on  to  a  simple  and  practical  conception  of 
the  unity  in  nature.  Moreover,  it  is  the  actual  unity 
which,  as  based  upon  persistent  and  omnipresent 
relations  of  cause  and  effect,  reveals  nature  in  her 
ordinary  dress  and  not  in  the  somewhat  artificial 
form  of  scientific  classifications,  isolating  the  differ- 
ent sciences  from  one  another. 

In  the  physical  sciences  there  is  also  a  body  of 
important  laws  which  are  worked  out  and  illustrated 
from  examples.  The  machines  and  inventions  by 
which  men  make  use  of  the  forces  of  nature  are  good 
illustrations  of  the  operation  of  important  physical 
laws. 

In  the  study  of  life  histories,  life  societies,  and  in 
the  working  out  of  simple  fundamental  laws,  we  may 
lead  on  to  a  grasp  of  the  unity  of  life  processes  in 
nature  and  to  such  an  interest,  insight,  and  habit  of 
study  as  to  greatly  influence  character. 

Here,  however,  we  must  repeat  a  caution.  Teachers 
and  adults  are  prone  to  give  emphasis  to  general 


54        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

laws,  far  beyond  what  children  need.  These  laws 
are  valuable  regulatives  and  guides  to  the  teacher; 
but  they  come  slowly  and  gradually  to  the  conscious- 
ness of  children. 

The  influence  that  nature  study  has  upon  charac- 
ter depends  largely  upon  the  hold  it  gets  upon  the 
child's  affections.  It  is  not  simply  a  matter  of  dis- 
cipline, but  also  of  attachment  and  interest.  The 
sources  of  stirring  interest  for  children  in  nature 
study  are  so  abundant  as  to  give  a  strong  and  steady 
impulse  to  work  and  will  effort.  Herbart  has  pointed 
out  clearly  that  three  of  the  great  fountains  of  inter- 
est and  inspiration  spring  from  the  roots  of  nature 
study  as  the  sources  of  great  rivers  gush  from  the 
foot  of  mountains. 

1.  The  empirical  interest  so  universal  among  chil- 
dren  deals  with   the  superficial   phases   of   nature's 
manifestations,  —  the  change,  variety,  and  generally 
pleasing  and   attractive   face   of   nature.      There  is, 
even  among  little  children,  a  native  powerful  impulse 
to  get  into  the  fresh  air,  the  sunshine,  and  outdoor 
contact  with  nature. 

2.  The  speculative  interest  works  down  into  causal 
relations,  gets   beneath   the  surface   of  phenomena, 
and  reaches  out  over  broad  areas  in  search  of  more 
or   less   general   laws.     The   causal   idea  is   an   all- 
powerful  impulse  alike  for  children  and  mature  sci- 
entists. 

3.  The  aesthetic  phases  of  nature's  handiwork,  the 


THE   GRADUAL    APPROACHES   TO    SCIENCE  55 

beauty  of  form,  color,  and  proportion  in  the  flower, 
bird,  insect,  cloud,  and  mountain,  furnish  limitless 
and  constant  opportunities  for  aesthetic  appreciation 
and  culture.  Many  think  this  the  choicest  part  of 
nature  study. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE   TO   LIFE 

WE  are  accustomed  to  hear  much  said  of  the  re- 
markable achievements  of  science  in  connection  with 
steam-engines,  electricity,  telescopes,  hydraulic  ma- 
chines, and  a  few  other  great  inventions.  But  we 
seldom  consider  to  what  a  wide  extent  all  forms  of 
industry  and  common  modes  of  life  have  been 
changed  by  recent  advances  in  science. 

The  applications  of  science  to  life  have  so  trans- 
formed our  surroundings  that  we  live  in  a  very  different 
world  from  that  of  fifty  years  ago.  To  live  prop- 
erly in  this  new  world  is  to  understand  it,  to  fit  into 
it,  and  to  make  the  best  use  of  it.  Since  the  changes 
are  due  chiefly  to  scientific  inventions  and  improve- 
ments, progress  in  education  calls  for  a  direct  and 
more  practical  acquaintance  with  sciences  by  common 
people. 

Every  important  invention  or  machine  of  applied 
science  calls  for  a  new  expenditure  of  intelligence  and 
foresight  on  the  part  of  the  many  people  who  use  it. 
By  bringing  sewer  connections  into  a  house  with 
water-closets,  traps,  sinks,  and  soil  pipe,  the  family 
is  exposed  to  the  most  serious  dangers  unless  the 
system  is  kept  effectively  clean  and  in  good  working 

5* 


THE   APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE   TO    LIFE  57 

order.  With  dirty  sinks,  leaky  traps,  and  exposed  cess- 
pools the  whole  system  breeds  danger  and  disease. 
The  use  of  gas  in  houses,  of  gasoline  stoves  and  oil 
lamps,  of  furnaces  and  ventilation,  requires  added 
intelligence  and  thoughtfulness. 

The  tighter  and  warmer  the  construction  of  our 
houses  against  winter  wind  and  cold,  the  greater  the 
need  for  a  complete  plan  of  ventilation.  But  it  is 
very  difficult  to  get  a  good  system  of  ventilation  into 
a  house,  and  still  more  difficult  to  find  some  one  intelli- 
gent enough  to  use  it  in  connection  with  a  heating  plant. 
Yet  these  are  prime  necessities  in  a  house  contain- 
ing modern  scientific  improvements.  In  a  well-regu- 
lated household,  with  modern  appliances,  there  are 
dozens  of  places  where  a  superior  intelligence  is 
needed  in  order  to  make  proper  and  healthful  use  of 
the  appliances  which  science  has  put  into  our  hands. 
Everywhere  these  improvements  have  been  coming 
rapidly  into  our  homes,  and  they  are  destined  soon  to 
take  full  possession  of  them.  But  for  their  proper 
use  the  definite  intelligence  of  the  people  everywhere 
is  necessary. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  public  school 
should  apply  itself  to  those  parts  of  knowledge  which 
are  of  general  or  universal  application.  The  knowl- 
edge which  is  peculiar  to  special  trades  and  profes- 
sions, as  brick-laying,  banking,  medicine,  dentistry, 
or  boat-building,  is  of  secondary  importance  in 
schools ;  but  that  knowledge  which  every  human 


$8        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

being  needs  in  order  to  be  healthy  and  efficient  in 
his  life  work  is  what  the  school  should  emphasize.  A 
very  large  number  of  the  applications  of  science 
to  life  have  this  universal  quality.  Like  the  air  and 
sunlight,  they  are  of  common  benefit  to  all  men.  It 
is  true,  first,  in  regard  to  all  those  things  which  be- 
long to  the  equipment  of  the  home  and  to  the  physi- 
cal health  of  the  individual,  and  secondly,  in  regard 
to  all  those  which  are  community  benefits,  as  public 
sanitation,  means  of  communication  and  travel,  and  all 
sorts  of  town  or  municipal  improvements.  These  latter 
are  also  social  benefits  which  bring  all  men  into  closer 
relations  of  helpfulness  and  dependence  upon  one 
another.  Both  the  small  affairs  of  the  family  at  home, 
and  the  large  affairs  of  the  community  and  of  the 
nation,  are  very  much  under  the  sway  of  these  scien- 
tific improvements  of  our  age. 

But  science  has  also  reached  out  with  a  strong  hand 
and  taken  possession  of  the  great  industries.  In  agri- 
culture, in  manufacturing,  in  mining  and  transportation, 
the  gigantic  steps  now  taken  are  quite  as  remarkable 
as  some  of  the  exploits  of  the  old  myths.  A  locomotive 
engine  with  seven-foot  wheels  is  as  far  removed  from 
the  ox  cart  of  two  generations  ago  as  Hiawatha's 
magic  slippers  from  the  shoes  of  the  ordinary  walker. 

u  He  had  moccasins  enchanted, 
Magic  moccasins  of  deerskin ; 
When  he  bound  them  round  his  ankles, 
When  upon  his  feet  he  tied  them, 
At  each  stride  a  mile  he  measured." 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  59 

Most  of  these  great  topics  history  and  geography 
deal  with  in  a  large  way ;  but  the  science  lessons  give 
the  keynote  to  a  definite  understanding.  That  is, 
history  or  geography  carries  these  topics  of  industrial 
and  social  life  a  certain  distance,  then  the  sciences 
must  go  deeper  into  the  explanation  of  things,  into 
the  real  causes  and  forces  at  work.  The  geography 
lesson  discusses  corn  and  wheat  production ;  but  the 
special  treatment  of  insects  damaging  the  corn  and 
wheat,  or  of  topics  relating  to  the  qualities  of  soil  and 
fertilizers,  must  be  turned  over  to  practical  science. 
Geography  gives  a  description  of  a  coal  mine  ;  but  the 
science  lesson  explains  the  origin  of  coal,  the  ma- 
chines used  in  hoisting,  and  the  construction  of  the 
safety  lamp.  History  lessons  often  mention  the  im- 
portance of  the  mariner's  compass  to  Columbus ;  but 
a  science  lesson  explains  the  compass. 

It  is  worth  noting,  also,  that  these  bearings  of  sci- 
ence on  life  are  not  confined  to  any  one  science  or 
group  of  sciences  ;  but  from  all  the  realms  of  scientific 
knowledge  come  these  fruitful  applications.  Geology 
is  helpful  to  the  miners  in  gold,  silver,  coal,  and  other 
minerals  and  metals,  and  even  to  the  farmer.  Build- 
ing stone,  fertilizers,  clays,  cements,  etc.,  refer  back  to 
geology.  The  importance  of  heat,  light,  sound,  and 
electricity  as  developed  in  physics  and  used  in  great 
industries  needs  but  a  mention.  Chemistry  is  at  the 
basis  of  mining  and  manufacturing  operations.  Bot- 
any and  zoology,  as  shown  in  our  agricultural  stations, 


60        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

are  opening  the  eyes  of  farmers,  gardeners,  and  fruit 
growers  to  the  nature,  difficulties,  and  opportunities  of 
their  business.  Meteorology  and  the  weather  reports 
serve  the  common  good.  It  is  superfluous  to  specify 
other  varied  applications  of  science ;  but  it  is  at  least 
worth  while  noting  that  this  sort  of  practical  science 
study  has  no  narrow  range,  that  it  reaches  into  all  the 
important  and  essential  human  affairs,  both  public 
and  private,  and  that  it  also  brings  under  interesting 
investigation  many  important  phases  of  pure  science. 
In  order  to  secure  the  enforcement  of  many  sani- 
tary and  social  improvements  of  a  scientific  charac- 
ter, it  is  essential  that  the  people  generally  should 
have  intelligent  ideas  about  such  matters.  It  is  now 
well  known  among  a  few  people  that  pure  milk  can 
be  had  only  by  definite  arrangements  and  precautions 
in  the  dairy  and  in  the  shipment  of  milk.  It  is  also 
well  known  that  for  the  lack  of  these  precautions 
great  quantities  of  contaminated  milk  are  sold,  and 
that  the  death-rate  among  children  and  older  people 
is  much  increased  by  the  common  use  of  such  bad 
milk.  Science  has  established  the  facts,  and  abun- 
dant practical  experiment  in  dairies  has  proved  beyond 
question  the  proper  means  of  securing  good  milk ;  it 
remains  only  for  popular  intelligence  on  this  subject 
to  be  so  disseminated  through  the  schools  that  an 
overwhelming  popular  sentiment  will  make  it  impos- 
sible among  dairymen  and  milk  venders  to  resist  this 
improvement.  Exactly  the  same  thing  is  true  in  re- 


THE    APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE    TO    LIFE  6 1 

gard  to  the  public  supply  of  pure  water  by  cities,  in 
regard  to  the  disposal  of  sewage,  the  provisions  for 
isolating  people  sick  with  consumption  and  other  in- 
fectious diseases,  in  regard  to  the  pure  food  laws,  and 
other  sanitary  and  social  regulations  based  upon  sci- 
entific knowledge.  Science  in  various  directions  has 
demonstrated  the  laws  of  life ;  but  popular  intelli- 
gence gained  through  the  schools  is  the  reserve 
power  which  will  steadily  force  people  to  practical 
consequences.  It  is  well  known  that  dairymen  and 
milk  dealers,  because  of  ignorance,  unwillingness 
to  incur  expense,  or  wilfulness,  are  slow  to  make 
the  desired  improvements ;  city  officials  are  often 
culpably  careless  and  negligent  of  public  needs,  till 
some  sort  of  popular  outbreak  strikes  them  and 
forces  a  reform. 

The  education  of  the  people  in  these  most  essen- 
tial matters  is  altogether  important  in  our  country 
where  popular  sentiment  settles  so  many  questions, 
and  where  authorities  often  follow  rather  than  lead 
the  people. 

Another  important  result  of  a  proper  teaching  of 
practical  science  in  the  public  schools  is  a  growing 
respect  for  science  and  for  scientific  specialists.  Our 
age  is  sometimes  called  an  age  of  specialization,  and 
the  movement  in  this  direction  is  very  marked  in 
universities,  in  the  medical  profession  in  cities,  and 
in  many  occupations  and  industries.  But  in  spite  of 
all  this  there  is  among  the  people  generally  a  com- 


62        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

mon  lack  of  respect  for  specialists  and  for  science. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  quantity  of  patent 
medicines  sold  and  swallowed.  The  success  of  bla- 
tant quacks  in  many  callings  is  a  further  illustration. 
People  allow  themselves  to  be  imposed  upon  so  much 
that  they  lose  the  power  or  desire  to  discriminate 
between  impostors  and  scientific  specialists.  This 
is  primarily  a  matter  of  education,  and  of  the  proper 
teaching  of  the  applications  of  science  to  life.  Presi- 
dent Eliot  of  Harvard  said  a  few  years  ago  that  the 
standard  of  intelligence  among  the  people  could  be 
measured  by  the  degree  of  their  respect  for  real 
specialists.  Gauged  by  this  standard,  the  intelligence 
of  the  American  people  at  the  present  is  not  of  a 
high  order. 

But  the  teaching  of  the  applications  of  science  so 
as  to  increase  this  sort  of  intelligence  and  respect 
for  specialists  has  been  little  developed  in  our 
schools.  It  may  be  said  with  moderation  that  in 
the  great  majority  of  schools  it  has  not  been  taught 
at  all.  I  think  it  can  be  shown  without  difficulty 
that  in  scores  of  lessons  showing  the  uses  of  sci- 
ence in  the  house  and  in  the  community  the  value  of 
expert,  scientific  knowledge  in  common  affairs  is 
unmistakably  demonstrated. 

Suppose  we  ask  children  the  question,  How  may 
we  find  out  whether  the  water  in  our  well,  or  drawn 
from  the  faucet,  is  healthful  and  pure  or  not  ?  There 
are  but  two  possible  ways.  Let  all  the  people  drink 


THE  APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE  TO   LIFE          63 

it  and  see  how  many  sick  people  are  the  result.  The 
other  is  to  get  it  analyzed  by  an  acknowledged 
specialist  at  the  state  university  or  elsewhere. 
What  is  the  best  way  to  boil  an  egg  ?  Specialists, 
by  careful  experiments  with  eggs  in  hot  water  tested 
by  the  thermometer,  have  worked  out  this  result. 
How  may  a  sick  room  be  disinfected  where  a  patient 
with  a  contagious  disease  has  suffered  ?  How  does  an 
insurance  company  find  out  whether  a  man  has  good 
health  and  is  a  good  risk  or  not?  These  are  but 
random  illustrations  to  suggest  where  the  true  source 
of  genuine  knowledge  is  best  sought. 

Turning  to  the  more  direct  school  question  as  to 
the  quality  of  these  science  lessons  and  their  suit- 
ableness to  the  school,  we  notice  first  that  they  are 
everyday,  prominent  topics  which  force  themselves 
upon  the  attention.  The  thermometer,  the  pump, 
the  windmill,  the  stove,  the  steam-engine,  the  barome- 
ter, the  clock,  the  scales,  an  electric  bell,  a  rifle, 
a  microscope,  a  camera,  a  telephone,  are  a  few  of  the 
common  machines  and  instruments  which  intrude 
themselves  upon  a  child's  attention,  while  questions 
of  pure  water  and  milk,  temperance,  contagious  dis- 
eases, cuts  and  bruises,  cleanliness  and  sanitation  in 
the  house,  poisons  and  disinfectants,  the  kitchen  and 
cooking,  the  stomach  and  digestion,  bodily  organs 
and  hygiene,  public  sanitation,  and  many  others 
similar,  are  obtrusively  present  in  daily  life.  We 
need  not  go  far,  therefore,  to  find  these  practical 


64        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

science  problems.  They  environ  us  constantly  and 
press  upon  us  for  attention. 

The  motive  to  investigate  and  to  understand  these 
common  and  striking  things  would  seem  to  be 
natural  and  spontaneous.  Yet  children  often  show 
little  desire  to  know  them.  With  these  as  with  most 
other  familiar  things,  they  turn  but  little  closer 
scrutiny  upon  them  till  their  interest  is  properly 
awakened  by  thoughtful  parents  or  teachers. 

But  there  is  one  great  advantage  in  this  class  of 
objects.  When  once  the  attention  of  children  is 
drawn  to  them,  and  they  discover  how  closely  such 
topics  are  bound  to  the  common  needs  of  life,  the 
interest  in  them  is  greatly  strengthened  and  the 
purpose  to  find  out  about  them  aroused.  In  other 
words,  they  furnish  a  strong  motive  for  study  and 
one  that  appeals  to  the  children  by  its  own  merit. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  more  vital  principle 
than  this  of  a  motive  springing  up  in  the  child's 
own  mind  and  aroused  by  his  own  perception  of  the 
meaning  and  value  of  knowledge.  It  is  closely 
linked  with  the  idea  of  self -activity  which  is  some- 
times set  up  as  the  comprehensive  and  dominant 
principle  of  all  education. 

Another  advantage  of  thus  first  encouraging 
science  in  its  practical  manifestations  is  that  one 
can  always  return  to  it  and  find  it  again  in  this  dress 
and  surrounding.  This  is  really  its  home,  its  proper 
habitat,  and  these  are  its  permanent  associations. 


THE    APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE   TO    LIFE  65 

The  laboratory  of  the  botanist  or  chemist  is  a  neces- 
sary part  of  the  machinery  of  investigation ;  but  the 
place  where  the  giant  puts  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel 
in  good  earnest  is  in  the  practical  work  of  life. 

We  are  inclined  to  think  that  children  in  approach- 
ing science  are  at  first  more  interested  in  the  results 
than  they  are  in  the  long  series  of  experiments  lead- 
ing to  the  results,  that  they  move  backward  from  life 
into  the  laboratory,  better  than  they  move  forward 
from  the  laboratory  into  life.  One  of  the  chief 
reasons,  as  indicated  above,  is  that  the  motives  for  in- 
vestigation spring  better  out  of  the  contact  with  life's 
needs  and  necessities,  than  from  the  artificial  con- 
ditions of  the  laboratory.  The  scientist,  intrenched 
in  his  science,  is  inclined  to  organize  his  work  around 
the  principles  of  his  science  and  to  regard  the  world 
of  nature  and  of  practical  life  as  a  source  from  which 
to  draw  illustrations.  The  teacher  finds  that  the 
child  is  already  domiciled  in  this  outside,  practical 
world,  that  he  has  grown  up  in  it  and  will  continue 
to  dwell  in  it,  and  when  he  begins  to  get  an  inkling 
of  the  problems  by  which  he  is  surrounded  it  is  well 
for  him  to  reach  back  into  the  workshop  of  the 
scientist  and  see  what  help  he  can  get  in  interpreting 
his  life  problems. 

We  believe,  therefore,  that  these  practical  appli- 
cations of  science  to  life  as  a  child  meets  them  in 
his  home  and  surroundings  are  the  entrance  way  to 
science.  They  furnish  the  points  of  contact  between 
F 


66        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

man  and  nature,  especially  those  points  of  contact 
which  are  manifest  to  all  and  first  attract  a  child's 
notice.  In  a  deeper  sense,  of  course,  the  scientific 
investigator  is  in  most  vital  touch  with  nature,  just 
as  the  theologian  may  be  in  most  vital  touch  with 
the  great  truths  of  religion.  But  the  theologian, 
with  his  systematic  theology,  should  be  kept  as  far 
away  from  the  child  as  possible.  In  fact,  he  is  no 
proper  part  of  a  child's  environment.  Nor  is  the 
mere  scientist. 

From  all  sorts  of  problems  arising  in  the  contact  of 
life  we  shall  be  forced  back  into  the  scientific  labo- 
ratory. How  may  sugar  be  gotten  from  beets  ?  The 
chemist  is  the  only  man  who  has  been  able  to  work 
out  the  problem.  How  may  we  find  out  whether  the 
ore  taken  from  a  gold  mine  is  profitable  ?  The 
assayist  must  answer.  How  may  crude  petroleum 
be  brought  into  serviceable  shape  and  its  various 
products  obtained?  Only  the  trained  specialist  can 
tell.  From  how  deep  a  well  may  water  be  pumped 
with  a  lift-pump?  How  may  we  find  out  whether  the 
lungs  and  heart  have  a  healthy  action?  How  may 
we  prove  and  illustrate  the  circulation  of  the  sap  in  a 
plant  ?  These  and  many  other  questions  can  only  be 
answered  by  the  specialist  with  his  instruments  or 
laboratory  equipment. 

The  effort  to  interpret  these  machines,  instruments, 
and  processes  from  practical  life  will  demand  a  strong 
exertion  of  intelligence.  It  will  not  be  mere  enter- 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF    SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  6? 

tainment  and  play.  Through  the  intermediate  and 
grammar  grades  we  may  count  on  serious  and  labo- 
rious subjects  of  study.  To  interpret  even  the 
simpler  machines  and  scientific  contrivances  requires 
concentration  of  thought.  A  pump,  a  thermometer, 
a  pair  of  scales,  a  siphon,  an  hydraulic  press,  a  rope 
and  pulley,  a  violin,  to  say  nothing  of  a  steam-engine, 
an  electric  light,  or  a  sewing-machine,  require  a 
genuine  effort  of  thought.  In  fact,  it  may  seem  to 
those  who  have  regarded  nature  study  as  entertain- 
ment and  recreation  rather  than  serious  study  that 
the  labor  we  are  calling  for  is  out  of  all  proportion  to 
the  abilities  of  children. 

Another  point  which  we  are  also  compelled  to  con- 
sider is  the  fact  that  most  of  the  problems  presented 
by  practical  life  are  complex,  involving  several 
elements.  Even  such  a  simple  thing  as  a  lift-pump 
or  a  bicycle  pump  involves  several  elements,  the 
forces  at  work  and  the  mechanical  devices.  The 
teacher  in  the  laboratory  is  apt  to  think  that  he  can 
grade  a  much  simpler  series  of  experiments  in  his 
laboratory  than  outside  life  can  furnish,  and  this  may 
be  true.  But  the  motive  for  the  demonstration  and 
its  later  bearing  upon  life  are  both  apt  to  be  over- 
looked in  such  pure  laboratory  work.  When  once  a 
good  problem  has  been  raised  in  life,  it  may  be  well 
to  use  all  the  devices  of  the  laboratory  to  illuminate 
and  clear  it  up ;  but  the  source  from  which  the 
problem  came,  and  the  final  reference  of  the  whole 


68        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

experiment  to  its  life  application,  are  the  things  not 
to  be  forgotten. 

But  we  have  long  since  learned  not  to  be  afraid 
of  complex  objects  and  phenomena  in  nature  study. 
The  squirrel,  in  spite  of  its  complex  structure  and 
fine  differentiation  of  organs,  is  one  of  the  first  ani- 
mals we  study  in  primary  grades.  The  dog,  the 
cat,  and  the  ox  are  others.  The  birds  and  insects 
are  not  of  the  lowest  and  simplest  forms  of  animal 
life,  and  the  flowering  trees  and  garden  plants  are 
not  simple  among  vegetable  growths.  But  we  study 
them  early  in  the  course. 

We  must  ask  ourselves,  however,  whether  this 
plan  of  a  series  of  lessons  in  applied  science  is  fea- 
sible. Is  it  reasonably  within  the  range  of  children's 
powers  ?  The  final  answer  to  this  question  must 
lie  in  a  detailed  series  of  demonstrations,  and  must 
successfully  run  the  gantlet  of  school  work  in  the 
hands  of  the  usual  teachers.  But  we  may  gain  a 
few  glimpses  of  the  difficulties  we  have  to  meet,  and 
of  the  means  of  overcoming  them. 

In  the  first  place,  the  lessons  of  this  sort  for  inter- 
mediate grades  (third,  fourth,  and  fifth)  must  be  of 
the  simple  kind.  For  example,  the  use  of  wagon 
grease  for  overcoming  friction,  the  grindstone,  the 
proper  care  of  apple  trees,  the  uses  of  water  in  cook- 
ing, the  need  for  clean  hands  and  finger-nails,  dry 
stockings  and  clothing,  the  house  cat  with  its  organs 
and  uses,  the  uses  of  iron  and  lead  pipe,  the  planting 


THE   APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE   TO    LIFE  69 

and  care  of  seedling  trees,  the  common  crowbar  and 
levers,  the  dangers  of  flies  in  the  house  and  means 
of  prevention,  life-preservers,  the  rope  and  pulley, 
the  derrick,  the  effects  of  the  use  of  tea  and  coffee 
by  children,  how  cement  sidewalks  are  made,  the 
value  of  deep  breathing,  the  teeth  and  their  care, 
growth  and  structure,  weeds  in  wayside  and  garden, 
bathing  and  its  effects,  how  to  keep  a  cellar  clean 
and  wholesome,  smoking  cigarettes,  chewing  the 
food  well  and  eating  slowly,  good  milk  and  bad,  and 
their  effects,  a  stove  or  lamp,  the  compass,  a  pair  of 
scales,  balloons,  the  lift-pump,  the  thermometer,  a 
refrigerator.  Most  of  these  topics  are  certainly 
simple  enough  and  deal  with  the  commonest  things. 
Many  of  them  are  treated,  however,  in  grammar 
grades. 

A  more  serious  difficulty  arises  in  the  treatment 
of  some  of  the  topics  proposed  for  the  upper  gram- 
mar grades.  Some  of  them  may  be  regarded  as  sim- 
ple, like  those  previously  mentioned,  as :  How  to 
keep  a  kitchen  clean,  sinks  and  traps,  etc.,  sources 
of  a  pure  water  supply  for  houses  and  towns,  the 
uses  of  beer  and  wine,  cleanliness  and  fresh  air  in 
the  sick  room,  the  treatment  of  accidental  injuries, 
fainting,  drowning,  etc.,  the  value  of  various  gymnas- 
tic exercises,  dust  and  some  of  its  dangers,  the  sim- 
ple phases  of  digestion,  a  barometer,  an  hydrostatic 
press,  artificial  ice  making,  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  fire-proof  building  materials,  a  clock.  Even 


/O        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

the  telescope  and  the  steam-engine  in  their  simpler 
forms  are  not  specially  difficult.  But  the  electric 
bell,  the  turbine  wheel,  the  telephone,  the  camera, 
the  electric  light,  the  telegraph  and  the  electric 
motor,  may  seem  beyond  the  comprehension  of 
grammar  grade  children. 

The  electric  light,  for  example,  is  regarded  as  too 
abstruse  for  children ;  but  the  two  main  points,  how 
an  electric  current  is  generated  and  how  the  light  is 
produced  at  a  given  point  in  the  circuit,  are  not  very 
difficult,  and  in  spite  of  the  inscrutable  nature  of 
electricity  enough  can  be  understood  of  the  condi- 
tions of  its  production  and  use  to  make  children 
intelligent  about  it.  Likewise,  the  generation  and 
expansive  power  of  steam  and  its  simple  application 
are  such  that  the  principle  of  the  steam-engine  can 
be  understood.  The  understanding  of  the  compli- 
cated machinery  of  a  locomotive  engine  is  not 
necessary. 

At  this  stage  of  the  discussion  there  are  two  ideas 
which,  if  clearly  grasped,  may  relieve  us  of  much 
unnecessary  worry. 

First,  in  studying  these  applications  of  science  to 
life  it  is  not  necessary  nor  desirable  to  penetrate 
into  the  deeper  intricacies  of  science,  that  is,  to 
make  an  exhaustive  and  systematic  study  oi  any 
topic  in  science.  Our  sole  purpose  is  to  throw  a 
certain  degree  of  intelligence  into  these  common 
observations  of  the  uses  of  science,  to  awaken  an 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  Jl 

intelligent  interest  in  them,  to  prevent,  what  is  too 
common,  a  feeling  of  blank  amazement  or  even  indif- 
ference in  the  presence  of  striking  and  valuable 
scientific  achievements  and  objects.  Problems  too 
difficult  for  the  children  can  be  turned  up  anywhere. 

There  is  scarcely  a  scientific  topic,  which  under 
the  questions  of  an  intelligent  child  will  not  soon 
lead  into  problems  and  controversies  which  expert 
scientists  have  not  yet  settled.  In  discussing  the 
effects  of  hurtful  bacteria  in  water  and  milk,  the 
means  by  which  scientists  have  found  out  these 
germs  and  the  mode  of  their  rapid  multiplication, 
may  be  briefly  discussed  and  illustrated ;  but  a  de- 
tailed study  of  bacterial  cultivation  and  experiment, 
and  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  children  to  enter  them- 
selves upon  a  difficult  line  of  experimentation,  are  out 
of  the  question.  In  this  case  we  are  more  concerned 
to  know  how  milk  and  water  are  contaminated,  and 
the  means  which  scientists  have  put  into  our  hands 
for  preventing  this,  than  the  details  of  scientific  inves- 
tigation. At  the  same  time  the  children  need  to  get 
a  quickening  insight  into  the  scientific  process  itself. 

In  the  second  place,  we  are  not  aiming  to  give  a 
systematic  survey  of  botany,  geology,  physics,  meteo- 
rology, or  zoology  in  the  common  school.  We  are 
much  more  anxious  to  interpret  intelligently  the 
world  of  man  and  nature  around  us  than  we  are  to 
build  up  a  system  of  classifications  or  laws  such  as 
scientists  glory  in.  After  a  moment's  reflection  it 


72        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

would  appear  ridiculous  that  we  should  ever  have 
dreamed  of  doing  such  a  thing.  In  an  elementary 
science  course,  we  draw  materials  from  every  science. 
To  require  systematic  work  in  each  science  would  be 
equivalent  to  dumping  the  whole  high  school  and  col- 
lege curriculum  into  the  grades.  We  think  that  the 
work  of  pure  science  should  be  delivered  over  to  the 
high  schools  and  the  colleges,  possibly  only  to  the  lat- 
ter, and  that  scientific  order  and  classification  should 
be  a  wholly  secondary  consideration  in  the  grades. 
Why  should  we  seek  to  cover  the  field  of  systematic 
science  in  a  slovenly  way,  running  over  and  spoiling 
in  a  shallow  and  trivial  manner  great  things  which 
ought  to  be  left  fresh  and  entire  for  mature  minds  ? 
About  the  only  result  we  shall  get  out  of  this  pro- 
cedure, from  the  children,  is  a  feeling  of  apathy  and 
disgust.  No,  let  the  children  be  left  free  to  look  the 
world  boldly  in  the  face  with  a  natural  inquisitive  in- 
terest, without  being  burdened  with  such  a  load  of 
learning.  We  believe  that  these  things  that  surround 
a  child  in  nature  and  in  human  affairs  have  an 
abounding  interest  if  we  do  not  try  to  make  them 
too  instructive,  too  edifying.  It  might  be  better  to 
awaken  a  thirst  for  classification  and  system  by  very 
small  doses,  than  to  make  a  surfeit  of  them. 

In  these  practical  applications  of  science  to  life  the 
centre  of  gravity  is  not  in  the  science  subjects,  but 
in  the  problems  of  human  life.  If  the  effect  of  this 
phase  of  science  teaching  is  to  give  the  children  such 


THE   APPLICATIONS    OF    SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  73 

an  impulse  that  they  will  approach  the  wonders  of 
science  in  the  high  school  with  a  strong  human  in- 
terest, it  will  be  well.  Or  if  they  pass  out  into  life 
without  entering  the  high  school,  they  will  be  pos- 
sessed of  that  modicum  of  scientific  knowledge  which 
they  most  need,  and  with  that  respect  for  the  achieve- 
ments of  science  which  will  render  them  more  obedi- 
ent to  its  requirements. 

In  what  is  usually  called  the  nature  study  of  the 
schools,  in  the  work  with  plants  and  animals,  the 
absorption  in  these  objective  things  in  nature  is 
natural  and  appropriate.  The  thorough  enjoyment 
for  their  own  sake  of  the  woods  and  wild  flowers,  of 
the  song-birds  in  the  groves  and  hedges,  of  bees  and 
ants  and  butterflies,  of  the  fishes,  turtles,  and  rabbits 
and  other  dwellers  in  stream  and  field  —  this  free  and 
unstinted  pleasure  in  the  things  of  nature  is  wholly 
desirable,  and  our  school  arrangements  should  be 
such  as  to  provide  for  its  steady  cultivation.  Coupled 
with  this  is  the  mere  charm  of  outdoor  life,  the  glory 
of  the  clouds  and  sunny  skies,  the  undescribed  beauty 
and  marvel  of  ferns  and  grasses,  of  flower  and  bird. 
These  things  are  wholly  germane  to  the  nature  study 
work  and  should  be  its  best  influence. 

Without  overloading  children  with  a  formulated 
system  of  science  or  with  technical  details,  we  may 
allow  them  to  work  their  own  way  toward  a  crude 
classification  of  objects  and  forces  in  nature  which 
is  essentially  scientific.  The  idea  of  types  which  dis- 


74        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

covers  such  a  wide-reaching  similarity  in  large  groups 
of  plants  and  animals  cannot  fail  to  lead  the  children 
along  those  chief  trails  which  prove  later  on  to  be  the 
great  highways  of  thought  in  natural  science. 

Returning  to  our  fundamental  theme,  the  applica- 
tion of  science  to  life,  we  not  only  find  in  public  and 
private  affairs  this  widespread  introduction  and  use 
of  scientific  methods  and  appliances,  but  the  ^different 
states  and  the  national  government  have  established 
schools  and  experiment  stations  for  the  specific  pur- 
pose of  rendering  available  the  resources  of  science 
for  common  life.  Schools  of  agriculture,  forestry, 
mining,  veterinary  science,  horticulture,  and  architec- 
ture have  been  established  in  many  of  the  state 
universities,  and  the  national  government  has  its  de- 
partments of  forestry,  agriculture,  mining,  geological 
survey,  fisheries  commission,  weather  bureau,  and 
patent  office  through  which  it  seeks  to  encourage, 
both  directly  and  indirectly,  the  use  of  the  best 
scientific  improvements  and  methods  in  the  great 
industries  of  the  country. 

Not  only  is  this  so,  but  the  publications,  bulletins, 
pamphlets,  maps,  and  monographs  on  special  subjects 
which  are  sent  out  from  the  scientific  experiment 
stations  and  government  offices  are  the  most  valu- 
able materials  we  have  for  the  use  of  teachers  in 
nature  study.  The  books  and  pamphlets  which  have 
been  sent  out  from  the  agricultural  department  of 
Cornell  University,  from  the  universities  of  Wiscon- 


THE   APPLICATIONS    OF   SCIENCE   TO    LIFE  75 

sin,  Illinois,  and  other  state  schools  in  the  North  and 
in  the  South,  are  among  the  most  instructive  and 
valuable  aids  for  teachers  in  nature  study.  In  the 
fulness,  richness,  and  appropriateness  of  instructive 
material,  they  are  far  superior  to  many  of  the  books 
that  come  to  us  from  other  sources.  This  suggests  that 
they  have  approached  the  nature  study  topics  in  many 
cases  from  a  better  point  of  view  and  with  a  better  idea 
of  what  is  needed  for  children  than  the  students  of 
pure  science  who  have  prepared  material  for  schools. 
In  the  effort  to  draw  our  science  lesson  more 
directly  from  life,  either  in  the  woods  and  fields 
or  from  human  occupations,  we  find  ourselves  copy- 
ing and  reproducing  in  the  school  considerable  sec- 
tions of  the  outside  world.  The  children,  for  example, 
construct  an  aquarium  and  people  it  with  plants, 
frogs,  fishes,  and  insects,  so  that  they  shape  up  the 
life  conditions  of  a  small  pond.  Or  they  lay  out  a 
garden  in  the  school  grounds,  prepare  the  soil,  sow 
the  seed,  and  cultivate  garden  vegetables  and  common 
flowers.  In  short,  they  reproduce  on  a  small  scale 
the  partnership  of  nature  with  the  gardener  or 
florist.  In  the  same  way  they  collect  tree  seeds  and 
plant  a  small  nursery,  or  they  take  care  of  pet  ani- 
mals, raise  chickens  and  pigeons,  and  contrive  at 
home  or  school  the  conditions  favorable  to  these 
employments.  In  the  laboratory  they  get  together 
the  tools  and  materials  necessary  to  make  pumps, 
canal  locks,  water-wheels,  thermometers,  siphons,  rope 


76        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

and  pulley,  and  other  machines  which  they  can  put 
to  work  in  ways  corresponding  to  the  uses  of  life 
outside  the  school.  Even  such  processes  in  indus- 
trial life  as  evaporation,  distillation,  fermentation, 
electroplating,  photography,  and  the  glazing  of  pot- 
tery are  achieved  in  the  school  workshop. 

A  few  important  phases  of  nature  and  types  of 
human  labor  can  be  thus  reproduced  in  or  about 
the  school,  those  especially  which  have  a  sort  of 
universal  significance,  as  gardening  and  fruit  grow- 
ing —  things  in  which  nearly  all  people  in  different 
callings  can  find  interest  and  profit. 

There  is  a  strong  effort  to  incorporate  these  active 
and  practical  phases  of  life  into  our  school  pro- 
gramme. We  may,  therefore,  inquire  more  definitely 
into  their  value. 

First,  the  active  reproduction  of  natural  conditions 
requires  stronger  effort  than  mere  observation.  Pre- 
paratory to  making  an  aquarium,  for  example,  chil- 
dren must  study  closely  the  life  conditions  in  and 
around  a  pond  and  then  set  to  work  to  reproduce, 
on  a  small  scale,  the  same  conditions  and  environ- 
ment. It  is  a  close  study  of  definite  conditions  with 
the  purpose  of  actively  reproducing  them.  If  they 
fail  to  provide  the  proper  conditions,  the  plants  and 
animals  will  not  thrive,  or  will  die,  so  they  have  a 
sharp  test  of  their  success  in  understanding  and  in 
imitating  nature.  Every  plant  or  animal  must  be 
understood  as  adapted  to  its  surroundings. 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   TO    LIFE  77 

In  some  respects  the  most  fruitful  idea  that  has 
come  into  our  nature  study  in  recent  years  is  that 
of  studying  any  plant  or  animal  in  its  environment. 
To  see  how  a  duck  is  adapted  by  its  feet,  bill, 
feathers,  structure,  and  inner  organs  to  live  and 
thrive  in  ponds  and  rivers  and  to  migrate  with  the 
change  of  seasons,  is  most  profitable.  The  same 
is  true  of  any  plant  or  animal  and,  in  a  modified 
sense,  of  any  machine  or  process  in  the  industries. 

In  biology  this  is  named  ecology  and  is  now  com- 
ing into  great  repute  in  higher  schools.  It  is  the 
housekeeping  notion;  how  a  plant  lives  and  thrives 
— by  a  proper  adaptation  and  use  of  its  bodily  organs 
makes  itself  at  home  in  its  surroundings  and  finds 
food  and  protection. 

Closely  connected  with  this  and,  indeed,  an  expan- 
sion of  ecology,  is  the  idea  of  life  groups  or  societies ; 
how  plants  live  together  and  form  a  life  group  in 
pond  or  forest. 

Now  when  the  children  undertake  to  reconstruct 
artificially  one  of  these  life  groups,  for  example,  to 
make  an  aquarium,  they  enter  more  actively  and  as 
participants  into  nature's  work  than  when  they 
merely  look  on.  This  brings  out  the  inventive 
and  constructive  activity  of  children.  The  motive 
of  imitation  and  reconstruction  lends  a  powerful 
emphasis  to  observation.  This  is  a  strong  reenforce- 
ment  of  the  old  idea  of  ecology. 

Where  children  raise  a  garden  and  manage  it  for 


78        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

themselves,  the  same  advantage  of  active,  personal 
participation  in  nature's  work  accrues.  They  must 
provide  the  proper  conditions  of  soil,  moisture,  sun- 
light, and  seed,  and  by  cultivation  keep  these  con- 
ditions steadily  favorable.  Even  the  care  of  insects 
in  a  vivarium  or  of  wild  plants  and  ferns  on  the  north 
side  of  a  house  has  this  same  element  of  active, 
intelligent  cooperation  with  nature.  The  care  of 
pet  animals  in  cages  and  pens  is  a  close  partner- 
ship with  nature  in  providing  appropriate  food  and 
surroundings. 

Back  of  all  this  and  reenforcing  it  is  the  power- 
ful instinct  of  children  for  activity.  This  is  of  all 
things  the  most  energetic  and  noticeable  character- 
istic of  children,  and,  curiously,  the  one  which  school- 
masters are  constantly  overlooking  and  failing  to 
provide  for. 

The  extent  to  which  this  imitative,  constructive, 
and  inventive  activity  of  children  may  be  used  as 
a  means  of  vitalizing  nature  study  is  made  clear 
by  a  brief  summary  as  follows.  Children  find  a 
free  vent  for  such  activity  in  the  home  and  school 
garden,  in  making  and  caring  for  aquaria,  in  hot- 
houses and  hotbeds,  in  farm  and  nursery  work,  in 
keeping  pet  animals  and  birds,  in  the  many  forms 
of  laboratory  experiment  and  construction,  in  win- 
dow gardens,  in  making  and  handling  all  sorts  of 
tools,  machines,  and  mechanical  contrivances. 

In  thus  showing  how  much  of  outdoor  and  other 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  79 

motor  activity  nature  study  may  supply  to  children, 
we  are  almost  encroaching  upon  the  domain  of 
manual  training  and  constructive  work.  In  fact, 
some  of  the  lessons  here  referred  to  belong  partly 
to  the  manual  training  topics,  as,  for  example,  mak- 
ing an  aquarium,  a  cage  for  pet  animals,  or  seed 
boxes,  tools,  and  machines.  Nature  study,  however, 
has  a  direct  interest  in  these  constructions  and 
often  furnishes  the  motive  f or  making  them,  —  is  in 
fact  a  very  close  neighbor  to  the  work  of  the  manual 
training  shop. 

To  lay  hold  of  these  constructive  activities  is  also 
to  capture  and  turn  to  the  best  use  the  play  instinct 
of  children.  In  their  plays  children  have  a  strong 
bent  for  imitating  the  objects  and  forces  in  nature 
and  the  machines  and  inventions  of  men.  In  the 
yard  they  will  build  up  and  operate  a  volcano,  a 
battle  ship,  a  stove  with  cooking  attachment,  a  fish 
pond,  or  an  Indian  encampment.  To  turn  this  play 
energy  into  the  channels  of  elementary  science  is 
not  difficult,  and  its  problems  are  so  much  like  those 
which  the  child  sets  up  for  himself  that  his  full 
participation  is  secured. 

In  laying  so  much  emphasis  upon  the  applications 
of  science  to  life  in  elementary  schools,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  assume  that  there  are  feasible  means  by 
which  children  can  be  brought  in  contact  with 
modern  life.  To  a  large  extent  this  will  take  care 
of  itself  through  the  varied  common  experiences  of 


8O        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN    ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

childhood  at  home  and  in  contact  with  town  and 
country  life.  But  there  is  one  large  field  in  which 
general  intelligence  is  lacking  or  is  vague  and  shad- 
owy. It  is  the  field  of  industrial  and  commercial 
life,  the  very  region  in  which  modern  science  has 
wrought  its  wonders.  Even  well-educated  people 
are  not  very  intelligent  about  those  important  inven- 
tions and  processes  which  have  revolutionized  manu- 
facturing, commerce,  and  agriculture.  The  changes 
brought  about  by  these  scientific  inventions  and 
processes  have  produced  a  good  share  of  the  tur- 
moil and  conflict  of  our  industrial  and  social  life. 
Society  is  in  a  process  of  constant,  painful  readjust- 
ment to  the  new  conditions  imposed  by  the  progress 
of  science  and  invention.  If  it  can  be  shown  that 
these  things  are  simple  enough  in  their  main  aspects 
for  children  to  grasp,  common  school  education  will 
have  to  centre  a  large  part  of  its  energy  upon  these 
problems.  But  science  must  share  this  work  with 
other  studies. 

We  have  in  our  schools  one  great  study,  geography, 
whose  function  it  is  to  give  an  intelligent  introductory 
survey  to  this  special  field,  —  by  means  of  excursions 
to  farms,  shops,  factories,  and  commercial  centres,  to 
put  children  in  direct  contact  with  these  human  occu- 
pations, with  the  various  work  of  artisans,  tradesmen, 
and  merchants,  with  typical  machines  and  processes 
in  industrial  life.  Then  by  full  descriptions  the 
larger  facts  and  relations  of  our  complex  economic 


THE   APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   TO   LIFE  8 1 

life  are  clarified.  Geography,  then,  is  the  princi- 
pal subject  to  pave  the  way  for  that  great  group 
of  science  topics  which  we  have  called  "the  prac- 
tical applications  of  science  to  life."  The  neces- 
sity of  geography  as  a  prelude  to  science  studies, 
as  a  means  of  giving  this  broader  practical  survey 
of  the  whole  field,  is  easily  seen.  With  this  work 
accomplished,  science  study  can  settle  to  its  special 
problems  and  throw  a  strong  light  upon  the  most 
important  questions  of  health  and  sanitation,  of  spe- 
cial machines  and  inventions,  of  scientific  processes 
applied  to  commerce,  agriculture,  and  manufacture. 

The  simple  history  of  invention  and  of  the  evolu- 
tion of  industrial  processes  will  also  throw  an  impor- 
tant side-light  upon  science  studies. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  observe  how  important  and 
close  are  these  relations  between  elementary  science, 
geography,  manual  training,  and  history.  No  study 
can  stand  by  itself  or  work  out  its  problems  unaided. 


CHAPTER  VII 

METHOD    IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS 

IT  seems  almost  presumptuous  to  give  definite 
directions  as  to  the  method  of  conducting  lessons  in 
elementary  science.  It  is  in  this  subject,  if  in  any, 
that  one  is  tempted  to  subscribe  to  the  old  dictum 
that  each  teacher  is  a  law  unto  himself,  and  that 
common  methods  are  common  failures. 

This  conviction  might  be  strengthened  by  the  start- 
ling variety  of  widely  divergent  topics  treated  in 
science  lessons,  such  as  wild  plants  and  animals,  in- 
ventions and  machines,  health  and  hygiene,  storms 
and  weather  maps,  excursions  to  the  woods  and  fields, 
experiments  in  the  laboratory,  pond  life,  fishes,  frogs, 
and  insects,  the  bodily  organs,  digestion,  circulation, 
etc.,  poisons  and  antidotes,  cooking  and  house  sanita- 
tion, a  granite  boulder,  mineral  springs,  metals  and 
minerals  and  their  treatment,  electrical  instruments, 
weeds  and  harmful  insects,  domestic  plants  and  ani- 
mals, the  results  of  using  alcohol,  physical  exercises 
and  bodily  strength,  contagious  diseases,  soils  and 
fertilizers,  public  sanitation  in  cities,  etc.,  etc. 

There  are  also  many  ways  of  getting  at  the  facts,  as 
by  direct  observation,  by  experiment  and  inference, 

82 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  83 

by  collecting  and  examining  specimens,  by  diagram 
or  model,  by  pictures,  by  examining  machines  and 
processes,  by  using  the  microscope  or  field  glass,  by 
explanation  and  direct  instruction  from  the  teacher, 
and  by  consulting  books. 

Again,  the  immediate  contact  with  the  objects  and 
forces  in  nature  and  in  the  applications  of  science 
raises  in  its  acute  form  the  difficult  problem  of  object 
and  experiment  teaching,  the  most  highly  recom- 
mended and  the  least  successfully  practised  phase  of 
instruction.  The  freedom  and  confidence  with  which 
teachers,  high  and  low,  recommend  observational  and 
experimental  science,  and  the  modesty  and  scarcity 
of  those  who  succeed  in  such  teaching,  almost  sug- 
gest the  old  fable  of  the  belling  of  the  cat.  This 
is  but  one  illustration  of  the  wide  breach  between 
enthusiastic  theory  and  successful  practice. 

It  is,  therefore,  with  some  misgivings  that  we  ap- 
proach the  task  of  giving  suggestions  upon  the 
method  of  conducting  elementary  science  lessons. 
In  spite  of  this  unpromising  start,  we  believe  there 
are  a  few  things  that  can  be  agreed  upon  and  a  few 
others  that  need  thorough  consideration.  First 
among  these  is  the  feeling  and  disposition  of  the 
teacher  toward  this  work. 

It  is  easy  for  us  to  expect  too  much  from  formal 
method.  The  atmosphere  which  the  teacher  diffuses 
about  him  by  his  own  interest  and  absorption  in 
nature  studies  is  more  potent  than  any  of  the  devices 


84        SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

of  method.  Indeed,  elaborate  schemes  and  detailed 
plans  seem  cold,  formal,  and  ineffective  as  compared 
with  the  simple  pleasure  and  enthusiasm  of  a  teacher 
wrapped  up  in  her  work. 

While,  on  one  side,  too  much  virtue  has  been  at- 
tributed to  method,  on  the  other  side,  too  much  con- 
fidence has  been  reposed  in  the  mere  contact  of 
children  with  nature.  In  most  discussions  of  nature 
study  it  has  been  boldly  assumed  that  if  children 
were  only  surrounded  with  nature's  works,  and  had 
their  senses  assailed  by  bird,  insect,  and  tree,  they 
would  at  once  respond  in  full  measure  to  the  thrills 
of  nature  study.  In  a  few  cases  this  may  be  true, 
just  as  in  a  few  cases  children  take  spontaneously  to 
books ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  an  atmos- 
phere produced  by  people  already  interested  in 
nature  study  is  the  gentle  stimulus  that  awakens  a 
child's  mind  to  the  beauty  and  attractiveness  of  the 
natural  world. 

It  may  be  observed,  in  thousands  of  cases,  that 
children  brought  up  in  the  environment  of  country 
life,  with  fields,  forests,  flowers,  and  birds,  show  little 
or  no  appreciation  of  these  things  ;  but  wherever 
parents,  in  happy  and  unconstrained  association  with 
their  children,  notice  and  enjoy  them,  the  love  of 
nature  and  a  closer  observation  of  her  attractions 
spring  up  vigorous  and  strong.  Just  as  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  home,  by  reading  and  story  and  happy 
familiarity  with  books,  may  lay  the  foundation  for  the 


METHOD   IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS  85 

best  acquaintance  and  real  enjoyment  of  literature, 
so  the  atmosphere  of  the  home  in  its  outdoor  life, 
excursions,  and  rambles  may  produce  an  environ- 
ment in  which  the  love-of-nature  sense  flourishes. 

Teachers  may  well  afford  themselves  the  time  to 
ponder  this  curious  phenomenon,  namely,  the  source 
from  which  a  deep  and  permanent  enjoyment  of 
nature  springs.  It  is  in  the  balmy  sunshine  and  in 
the  moist  and  mellow  earth  that  seeds  germinate  and 
grow  in  springtime ;  perhaps  it  requires  an  equally 
mild  and  conducive  atmosphere  to  root  the  child's 
thought  in  nature.  This  may  seem  to  have  little  or 
nothing  to  do  with  the  formal  and  exact  requirements 
of  the  school.  It  is  so  freakish  and  unconventional 
that  the  teacher  does  not  know  what  to  do  with  it. 
But  if  the  child's  nature  is  often  of  this  freakish  and 
unconventional  type,  and  demands  an  atmosphere 
rather  than  studied  and  prearranged  objects,  the 
teacher  may  well  bend  to  the  necessities. 

We  are  inclined  to  believe  that  all  true  nature 
study  will  find  itself  in  such  an  atmosphere,  produced 
by  the  contact  of  the  teacher's  mind  with  nature,  and 
warming  the  child's  mind  to  a  temperature  where  he 
himself  feels  the  glow  of  interest  and  appreciation. 
It  is  not  uncharitable  to  say  that  a  great  deal  of  our 
nature  study  has  no  such  atmosphere,  and  it  is  in  a 
gasping  condition  for  the  lack  of  it  — not  to  say  stone 
dead. 

An  atmosphere  is  indeed  an  important   condition 


86        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

of  life,  and  while  it  is  a  somewhat  intangible  thing, 
it  behooves  us  as  teachers  not  to  make  our  class 
rooms  uninhabitable  for  lack  of  it. 

If  once  the  interest  and  activity  of  children  are 
aroused  by  these  less  conventional  modes  of  study, 
the  more  regular  and  systematic  work  will  easily 
follow.  The  primary  grades  seem  to  be  well  adapted 
to  this  less  formal  and  less  intensive  study  of  nature, 
where  a  sunny  atmosphere  among  the  trees,  flowers, 
and  outdoor  life  is  conducive  to  the  love  of  nature. 
But  this  happy  companionship  with  nature  should 
grow  with  the  years,  and  run  parallel  with  later  more 
strenuous  studies. 

A  true  enthusiasm  on  the  teacher's  part,  however, 
feeds  upon  knowledge,  and  is  very  inquisitive  in  the 
search  for  it.  Everything  possible,  therefore,  should 
be  done  to  make  the  right  kind  of  knowledge  easy 
and  accessible  to  teachers. 

It  is  evident  that  a  teacher  needs  to  be  progressive 
and  somewhat  original.  But  what  equipment  of 
actual,  definite  knowledge  is  required  ?  On  this 
point  wise  people  seem  to  differ,  and  yet  it  is  hardly 
possible  that  any  one  will  object  to  a  teacher's  hav- 
ing plenty  of  knowledge.  He  should  not  only  have 
an  abundant  knowledge,  but  a  pressing  desire  to  get 
more.  In  fact,  we  believe  that  the  urgent  need  of 
teachers,  for  some  time  to  come,  will  be  a  larger 
amount  of  definite  information  on  those  phases  of  ele- 
mentary science  which  they  are  called  upon  to  teach. 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  8? 

By  far  the  most  important  problem  for  those  who 
are  trying  to  help  teachers  in  nature  study  is  not 
the  explanation  of  a  proper  method,  but  the  collection 
of  the  necessary  information  around  a  well-selected 
series  of  topics  for  the  grades.  Knowledge  and 
method,  however,  are  so  closely  combined  that  we 
cannot  discuss  one  without  the  other.  The  ability  to 
select  a  fit  series  of  science  topics  for  the  grades 
implies  a  mastery  of  the  principles  of  method  in 
teaching  them ;  that  is,  an  ability  to  select  the  topics 
that  can  be  taught.  One  of  the  curious  facts  in  this 
connection  is  that  a  large  part  of  the  knowledge 
in  our  scientific  text-books  is  not  (directly)  of  use 
in  the  work,  while  a  great  amount  of  untechnical, 
non-professional,  but  more  practical  and  interesting, 
knowledge  is  greatly  in  demand.  A  good  deal 
depends,  therefore,  upon  the  kind  of  knowledge 
offered  a  teacher  on  a  given  topic,  whether  it  can 
be  used  or  not  with  children. 

In  any  and  in  all  cases  the  teacher  needs  plenty  of 
knowledge  and  the  enthusiasm  for  progress  in  getting 
more. 

The  book  of  nature  lies  open  before  the  children, 
and  they  are  to  learn  to  read  and  to  appreciate  it. 
This  is  by  no  means  so  easy  as  many  people  have 
supposed.  Under  our  present  system  of  education 
nature's  book  seems  more  difficult  to  interpret  than 
learning  to  read  schoolbooks.  But  a  real  appreciation 
even  of  books  is  not  common.  A  superficial  obser- 


88        SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

vation  of  nature  is  common  to  all.  To  gain  insight 
into  nature,  however,  children  must  learn  to  look 
beneath  the  surface  and  detect  the  working  forces 
or  the  hidden  law.  Nature's  secrets  lie  concealed 
under  the  surface  of  phenomena,  and  children  must 
learn  to  uncover  the  facts  and  look  at  the  inner 
workings. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  children  are  to  find  out 
the  facts  very  largely  by  their  own  observation,  and 
even  to  think  out  the  conclusions  to  which  they 
point.  This  principle  of  self-activity,  directed  toward 
real  objects  and  phenomena,  requires  the  teacher  to 
keep  himself  prudently  in  the  background  and  partly 
by  indirect  means  to  guide  the  children's  efforts. 

To  work  out  this  principle  of  self-reliant  effort  a 
great  variety  of  devices  is  resorted  to.  One  is  to 
plan  outdoor  excursions  in  which  the  children  are 
thrown  upon  their  own  resources  in  observing  birds, 
trees,  insects,  wild  flowering  plants,  weeds,  winds  and 
storms  and  their  effects,  rainbows,  clouds,  and  other 
objects,  sights,  and  scenes  in  nature.  Sometimes 
the  teacher  is  skilful  enough  to  secure  good  collec- 
tions of  weeds  or  insects  or  seeds  which  the  children 
have  made.  Again,  objects  are  presented  for  direct 
examination  in  class.  Or  experiments  with  given 
materials  are  provided  in  the  laboratory.  It  may  be 
that  a  machine  or  instrument,  as  a  thermometer, 
pump,  or  battery,  is  constructed  by  the  children,  is 
made  to  operate  in  the  class,  and  is  observed  in  its 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE    LESSONS  89 

parts  and  working,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  its 
principle.  In  the  home  or  school  garden  children 
prepare  the  soil,  plant  seeds,  and  watch  them  grow 
into  vegetables  or  seedling  trees,  and  cultivate  them. 
They  may  even  deal  with  the  insects  and  birds  which 
help  or  hinder  the  plants.  The  children  prepare  the 
equipment  of  nets,  boxes,  and  tools  for  field  work, 
and  mount  and  care  for  specimens.  In  combination 
with  manual  training  they  should  construct  the 
simpler  machines  and  apparatus  used  in  science 
lessons,  such  as  levers,  wheel  and  pulley,  water- 
wheel,  boxes  for  window  plants,  and  kites,  balloons, 
siphons,  traps,  pumps,  a  compass,  a  beehive,  a  cage, 
etc.  In  their  drawings  and  note-books  also,  the 
children  find  free  and  original  expression  of  their 
thought. 

In  keeping  a  weather  record,  in  caring  for  pet 
animals,  in  observing  continuously  a  pair  of  robins 
during  the  nesting  and  hatching  season,  in  making  a 
bird  or  flower  calendar  for  the  spring  or  fall  months, 
the  children  may  be  trained  to  independent  and 
continued  observation  along  given  lines.  This  self- 
activity  appears  also  in  the  setting  of  problems  and 
working  toward  specific  aims  in  many  kinds  of  les- 
sons, and  will  be  discussed  later  with  illustrations. 

But  in  addition  to  the  knowledge  and  enthusiasm 
of  the  teacher  and  the  self-activity  of  pupils,  the 
teacher  wishes  to  get  at  some  general  basis  of  action 
in  planning  her  lessons.  The  most  fundamental  idea 


QO        SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

in  this  respect  is  the  lesson  unit,  or  the  controlling 
idea  around  which  she  organizes  her  work  in  dealing 
with  any  important  topic.  It  may  require  one  or 
many  days  to  work  out  such  a  lesson  unit.  The  con- 
struction and  uses  of  a  thermometer  illustrate  such 
a  unit.  The  dandelion  in  its  whole  cycle  of  growth, 
including  its  adaptations  to  surroundings,  to  friends 
and  foes,  is  such  a  lesson  unit.  Fire  and  the  process 
of  combustion  is  one.  A  microscope,  artificial  ice 
making,  the  English  sparrow,  a  spring  bird  calendar 
in  connection  with  the  migration  of  spring  birds,  a 
maple  tree  in  its  life  history,  the  grasshopper,  the 
earthworm,  the  heart  and  circulation,  the  electric 
light,  the  ox,  whiskey  and  its  effects,  pure  water  and 
how  obtained,  are  such  units  of  instruction. 

The  heaviest  work  should  have  been  performed  for 
the  teacher  by  those  who  select  and  arrange  a  whole 
series  of  these  lesson  units  for  a  graded  course  in 
school.  Supposing  now  that  such  a  well-selected 
series  has  been  made  and  that  the  teacher  has 
equipped  herself  with  an  abundant,  suitable  knowl- 
edge of  those  topics  she  has  to  teach,  is  it  wise  to 
intrude  any  suggestion  in  regard  to  method  ?  Not  a 
few  teachers  are  disposed  to  say,  at  this  point,  that 
method  is  superfluous.  A  good  teacher  will  take 
care  of  herself.  But  a  good  teacher  is  one  who 
understands  method  as  well  as  matter,  and  we  are 
not  helped  by  such  a  statement. 

It  is  well  to  look  the  difficulties  of  the  teacher's 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  9 1 

problem  fairly  in  the  face.  It  is  really  more  serious 
and  complicated  than  one  without  experience  with 
children  in  this  sort  of  teaching  would  suppose. 
Were  it  a  matter  of  merely  pointing  out  so  many 
facts  in  nature  for  the  children  to  learn,  or  of  putting 
certain  objects  before  children  to  let  them  find  out 
the  facts  as  best  they  could,  the  task  would  be  easy. 
But  it  is  neither  the  one  nor  the  other. 

We  believe  that  the  main  question  for  teachers 
may  be  stated  in  this  way :  how  to  get  the  problems 
of  science  before  children  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
them  to  the  best  exercise  of  their  own  independent 
powers  in  solving  them.  It  consists  in  shrewd  prob- 
lem setting.  It  is  arithmetic  over  again,  but  in  more 
complicated  and  interesting  form.  Each  object  in 
nature  raises  a  query.  The  organs  of  a  dandelion 
or  cactus  or  squirrel  are  suggestive.  They  are  not 
merely  facts,  they  are  signboards.  To  one  who  has 
learned  even  the  alphabet  of  nature's  book,  a  cat's 
claws  and  teeth  are  unmistakable  signs  of  its  lineage 
and  mode  of  life.  A  granite  boulder  lying  on  the 
prairie  soil  speaks  of  glaciers  and  a  northern  home. 

Every  plant  and  animal  is  a  mechanism  worked 
into  efficient  action  by  the  forces  around  it.  These 
causes  and  results  can  be  traced  out.  In  most  cases 
the  adaptation  to  surrounding  conditions  is  very 
manifest,  as  with  the  duck,  squirrel,  or  fish.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  get  an  entering  wedge  into  any  science 
topic  by  examining  some  part  or  organ  in  a  plant  or 


92        SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

animal  to  discover  its  peculiar  adaptation  and  use. 
The  machines  and  contrivances  invented  by  men  for 
the  purpose  of  turning  nature's  forces  into  useful 
channels  are  embodied  or  materialized  problems.  To 
examine  a  machine,  its  construction  and  parts,  to  find 
out  its  mode  of  operation  and  use,  as  a  milk  separator, 
stove,  or  steam-engine,  is  to  work  out  this  problem. 

A  moderate  degree  of  thoughtfulness  on  the 
teacher's  part  will  discover  and  state  such  problems 
as  the  following  :  How  does  the  duck,  a  warm-blooded 
animal,  keep  dry  and  warm  while  living  so  much  in 
and  upon  the  cold  water  ?  In  using  a  bicycle  pump, 
find  out  the  way  in  which  the  air  is  forced  into  the 
tire.  In  baking  bread,  what  causes  the  dough  to  rise 
so  as  to  be  light  and  spongy  ?  Examine  a  mole  and 
find  out  how  he  is  able  to  burrow  so  quickly  into  the 
ground.  As  the  bees  move  about  from  blossom  to 
blossom,  what  service  do  they  render  to  the  flowers  ? 
What  kind  of  physical  exercises  do  boys  and  girls 
need  to  give  a  healthy  growth  to  all  the  organs  of  the 
body  ?  How  can  the  coddling  moth  be  prevented 
from  damaging  the  apple  trees?  What  is  the  con- 
struction of  a  trap  to  prevent  sewer  gas  from  getting 
into  a  house?  Why  is  it  that  a  fish  can  breathe 
under  water  but  not  in  the  open  air  ?  How  are  the 
lenses  of  a  pair  of  glasses  made  so  that  some  people 
can  see  better  ?  What  is  the  effect  of  drinking  cold 
water  while  eating?  Under  what  conditions  and 
why  do  we  see  a  rainbow  in  the  sky  ?  From  what 


METHOD   IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS  93 

kind  of  a  well  may  we  be  assured  of  obtaining  pure 
drinking  water,  free  from  germs  ? 

These  are  but  illustrations  of  the  sort  of  problems 
or  questions  which  spring  up  easily  in  all  kinds  of 
science  lessons.  To  ask  questions  about  objects  is 
not  indeed  difficult,  but  to  ask  the  pivotal  question, 
upon  which  much  hinges  and  which  at  the  same  time 
arouses  the  curiosity  of  children,  is  difficult.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  teacher,  by  observation  and  study,  to 
sift  out  these  important  and  interesting  questions, 
and  to  learn  how  to  put  them.  The  objects  in  nature 
and  the  various  machines  and  inventions  of  men  for 
applying  science  to  life  can  be  best  studied  with  such 
pointed  questions  as  guides. 

Nature  study,  more  than  any  other  school  subject, 
bristles  with  problems  which  demand  self-reliant 
thought.  The  objects  themselves  are  standing  prob- 
lems. In  history  or  arithmetic  we  are  compelled  to 
state  in  language  the  conditions  of  the  problem,  but 
a  flying  bird,  a  swimming  fish,  or  a  spinning  bicycle 
is  itself  a  problem,  arousing  our  curiosity  and  stimu- 
lating thought.  It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to 
use  as  few  words  as  possible  in  getting  the  problems 
before  the  children.  Nature  does  nearly  all  the  talk- 
ing. The  teacher  can,  however,  do  a  great  deal  of 
thinking  so  as  to  know  where  to  concentrate  the 
observation  and  thought  of  children. 

In  directing,  for  example,  the  observations  of  chil- 
dren upon  the  red  squirrel,  they  will  be  interested 


94        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

for  a  while  in  merely  observing  their  own  pet  squir- 
rels, or  those  in  the  park,  or  one  in  a  cage  ;  but  this 
kind  of  shallow  observation  will  soon  become  tire- 
some, unless  problems  are  raised  which  keep  the 
children  observing  and  experimenting  along  continu- 
ous developing  lines.  If  they  are  asked  to  find  out 
what  kind  of  food  squirrels  prefer  and  what  they  live 
upon  when  in  the  woods,  a  field  of  experiment  and 
inquiry  is  opened  up.  How  and  of  what  material  do 
they  build  their  nests  and  what  provision  do  they 
make  for  winter?  In  what  ways  do  the  different 
organs  of  the  body  fit  them  for  life  in  the  woods? 
This  question  may  lead  to  a  close  inquiry  into  the 
structure  and  use  of  the  feet  and  claws,  teeth  and 
legs,  fur  and  tail.  In  fact,  the  whole  activity  of  these 
interesting  animals  and  their  habits  in  the  woods  will 
come  under  close  survey.  What  degree  of  intelli- 
gence do  they  show  ?  This  will  bring  up  a  number 
of  observations  in  regard  to  their  storing  food  for 
winter,  building  their  nests,  caring  for  their  young, 
ways  of  escaping  from  their  enemies,  their  behavior 
as  pets,  etc. 

Such  questions  are  really  significant  aims  and  sug- 
gest the  working  out  of  a  biography  or  life  history. 
It  involves  not  simply  a  description  of  a  few  points 
of  external  appearance;  it  is  rather  a  full  study  of 
the  squirrel's  home  in  the  woods.  So  long  as  new 
and  instructive  facts  are  being  unearthed,  the  subject 
will  not  prove  irksome  to  children. 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  Q$ 

The  life  history  of  the  squirrel  is  a  survey  of  its 
whole  habitat  from  the  squirrel's  standpoint,  with  its 
dependence  upon  trees  and  nuts,  grasses  and  herbs, 
and  its  close  companionship  with  other  animals, 
birds,  and  insects.  The  squirrel  fits  into  its  place  in 
nature  as  a  leaf  fits  its  place  on  the  tree.  A  single 
animal  treated  in  this  particularized  fashion  furnishes 
the  key  to  one  important  method  of  observation  and 
study.  Such  treatment  checks  at  the  start  the  easy 
tendency  toward  superficial  observation  and  descrip- 
tion of  external  appearances.  We  grasp  at  one  or 
more  of  the  significant  problems  of  the  animal's  life. 
If  we  are  studying  a  water  bird,  we  desire  to  discover 
how  it  is  adapted  to  get  its  food  in  lakes  and  streams, 
and  to  make  long  flights.  We  follow  it  in  its  migra- 
tions and  realize  its  conditions.  If  a  catfish  is  the 
subject  of  investigation,  we  desire  to  interpret  its 
life  in  the  water  and  its  means  of  living  and  flourish- 
ing there. 

Every  new  plant  or  animal,  every  machine  or 
process,  presents  a  new  problem,  not  simply  a  repe- 
tition of  old  questions.  Much  of  the  skill  and  suc- 
cess of  teaching  depends  upon  the  ability  to  approach 
the  topics  from  the  standpoint  of  problems  or  signifi- 
cant aims.  The  setting  up  of  the  problems  or  aims 
that  will  cause  the  children  to  investigate  and  think, 
to  collect  and  interpret  facts,  is  one  of  the  chief 
demands  upon  the  teacher. 

In  the  course  of  his  observations  upon  the  squirrel, 


96        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

its  organs  and  surroundings,  it  is  but  natural  that  a 
child  will  bring  the  squirrel  into  comparison  with 
himself  and  with  other  animals  with  which  he  is 
familiar.  The  boy  climbs  also,  but  the  squirrel  is 
far  more  easy  and  expert.  Other  squirrels,  the  cat, 
and  some  birds  are  ready  climbers.  It  is  interesting 
to  note  the  difference  in  size,  color,  and  habit  of  the 
different  kinds  of  squirrels.  The  little  flying  squirrel 
as  compared  with  the  red  squirrel  has  distinct  ad- 
vantages in  flying,  but  is  much  less  quick  and  agile. 
The  peculiar  gnawing  teeth  of  the  squirrel  at  once 
suggest  to  the  boy  other  gnawing  animals,  as  the 
beaver,  rats  and  mice,  and  the  rabbit.  This  may 
easily  lead  to  a  closer  study  of  these  gnawing  teeth 
and  their  manner  of  growth,  renewal,  and  how  they 
are  kept  sharp.  The  contrast  with  the  teeth  of  the 
dog  and  cat  and  other  flesh-eating  animals  is  notice- 
able, and  the  reason  for  this  marked  difference  in  the 
teeth  is  not  difficult  to  find.  In  a  rough  way  this 
difference  in  teeth  shows  to  children  a  difference 
between  two  large  groups  of  animals,  based  chiefly 
upon  a  difference  in  food  and  the  means  of  getting  it. 
Not  all  the  animals  and  plants,  of  course,  can  be 
treated  with  the  fulness  of  biographical  detail  which 
is  here  suggested  for  the  squirrel.  Nor  is  it  at  all 
necessary,  since  one  of  the  aims  of  nature  study  is 
to  get  broad  views  of  the  chief  classes  of  objects  and 
phenomena.  These  broad  views,  though  crude,  are 
still  essentially  correct,  since  the  objects  or  phe- 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE    LESSONS  97 

nomena  we  study  are  types.  The  study  of  the 
squirrel,  for  example,  with  the  natural  comparisons 
which  children  may  make  with  familiar  animals,  will 
give  them  a  tolerably  correct  notion,  not  only  of  all 
squirrels,  but  also  of  the  fundamental  idea  upon 
which  the  whole  distinct  order  of  rodents  is  based. 

These  life  histories  of  animal  and  plant  supply  us 
with  those  lesson  units  which  we  have  described 
before  as  the  important  centres  of  study.  Corre- 
sponding to  these  life  histories  in  biology  are  certain 
objects  and  phenomena  in  physical  science  (meteo- 
rology, physics,  geology,  and  chemistry)  whose  study 
opens  the  door  to  the  large  truths  of  nature  in  these 
fields.  Such  important  units  of  study  are  the  rain- 
storm, iron  as  a  metal,  coal  and  its  origin,  the  rain- 
bow, the  granite  boulder,  water,  its  forms  and  uses, 
fire  and  the  process  of  combustion,  salt,  sunshine,  the 
atmosphere,  limestone  and  fossils,  and  many  others. 
Such  topics  should  be  distributed  through  the  in- 
termediate and  grammar  grades  according  to  their 
simplicity  and  fitness  to  open  the  eyes  and  intelli- 
gence of  children  to  the  physical  world  around  them. 

Still  another  list  of  more  pronounced  units  of  in- 
struction, and  of  equal  importance,  is  found  in  the 
series  of  machines  and  inventions  by  which  man  has 
turned  the  forces  of  nature  into  service,  —  as  the 
compass,  lamp,  pump,  thermometer,  microscope, 
water-wheel,  the  clock,  the  electric  bell,  the  photo- 
graphic camera,  and  the  steam-engine.  Every  one 


98        SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

of  these,  when  understood  in  its  construction  and  re- 
lation to  natural  forces,  gives  the  child's  thought  a 
wide  conquest  over  natural  things.  They  are  real 
centres  of  study,  typifying  and  illustrating  in  con- 
crete objects  the  comprehensive  laws  and  energies 
in  nature. 

The  chief  topics  to  be  treated  under  the  subjects 
of  health,  physical  training,  temperance,  and  sanita- 
tion are  also  well-selected  centres  of  study,  and  may 
be  handled  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  already  men- 
tioned ;  for  example,  the  effects  of  cooking  upon 
foods,  ice,  its  uses  and  dangers,  structure  and  care 
of  the  eyes,  the  care  of  the  sick  room,  kinds  and 
value  of  gymnastic  exercises,  the  heart  and  circula- 
tion, the  ventilation  of  a  house,  the  nature  and  effects 
of  alcohol,  etc. 

We  may  now  summarize  a  few  leading  points  in 
the  method  of  treating  these  lesson  units. 

1.  Every  such  lesson  unit  centres  in  some  impor- 
tant truth  which   is   of   wide   application.      A   firm 
grasp  of  this  central  idea  by  the  teacher,  and  a  clear 
perception  of  its  relations  to  the  subordinate  topics 
and  facts,  is   the   basis   for   successful    instruction. 
Then  the  question   arises,    How   shall    children   be 
brought  through  their  own  self-activity  and  thought 
power  to   approach   and   master  this  unit  of  study, 
and   how  shall  they  learn  to  recognize  the  truth  it 
embodies  in  its  various  applications  ? 

2.  An  aim  needs  to  be  set  up  which  points  clearly 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  99 

toward  this  general  truth,  and  while  it  involves  diffi- 
culties still  presents  an  interesting  problem  for  solu- 
tion. The  setting  up  of  such  significant  aims  pointing 
toward  important  discoveries  and  truths  is  a  strong 
demand  for  skill  and  insight  in  teaching.  It  points 
out  clearly  the  road  to  be  travelled  in  the  search  for 
truth,  and  calls  out  the  self-activity  and  thought 
power  of  students.  In  an  oral  or  experimental  plan 
of  study,  the  setting  up  of  such  guiding  aims  both 
stimulates  the  children  and  points  toward  the  most 
important  truths  to  be  mastered.  In  an  oral  method, 
such  as  science  teaching  demands,  it  is  possible  to 
throw  children  upon  their  own  resources  in  the 
effort  to  reach  the  aims  set  up.  A  text-book,  on  the 
other  hand,  with  its  didactic  method,  works  out 
the  problems,  giving  the  solution  for  the  children 
to  learn.  In  science  work  children  observe,  collect 
facts,  trace  causes  and  relations,  compare  and  draw 
inferences,  for  the  sake  of  conclusions  which  are  to 
be  worked  out  by  their  own  thinking  and  tested  by 
facts  of  their  own  seeing.  The  aim  set  up  should 
be  particular,  definite,  and  interesting,  rather  than 
indefinite,  general,  or  abstract.  The  truth  aimed  at 
is  first  worked  out  in  some  concrete  setting  and 
afterward  seen  in  its  more  general  application. 

3.  While  any  important  topic  is  up  for  discussion, 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  to  study  it  so  as  to  determine 
the  facts.  Observe  it  as  a  whole  and  in  its  parts,  and 
the  relation  of  the  parts  to  each  other  and  to  the 


IOO      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

whole  (analysis  and  synthesis).  This  process  of  obser- 
vation or  study  presents  all  the  facts  clearly  to  the 
mind  in  their  concrete  setting.  For  example,  in  the 
study  of  the  wild  duck  as  a  type  of  bird  life,  we  would 
gather  the  facts  relating  to  structure,  organs,  mode 
of  life,  food,  habits,  migrations,  nesting,  and  length 
of  life.  This  is  the  opportunity  for  children  to  be 
self-active,  to  observe,  to  gather  facts,  to  investigate. 
It  is  the  teacher's  chance  to  guide  wisely,  to  question, 
to  stimulate,  and  not  to  be  overhasty  in  forcing  con- 
clusions. This  is  the  place,  also,  for  the  teacher  to 
give  facts  which  are  beyond  the  experience  or  reach 
of  the  children,  and  to  suggest  reference  books  for 
their  study.  If  diagrams  or  pictures  or  other  illus- 
trative devices  are  needed  to  bring  out  the  scientific 
facts,  this  is  their  fitting  place.  The  children  need 
also  to  verify  their  observations,  to  render  them  into 
some  definite  form  of  expression,  in  word  description 
or  drawings.  At  the  close  of  each  important  topic,  a 
careful  and  adequate  reproduction  of  the  knowledge 
gained  should  be  obtained  from  the  children. 

4.  The  typical  or  general  character  always  involved 
in  such  a  particular  study  is  seldom  seen  or  realized 
from  the  study  of  a  single  specimen.  We  have  to 
look  abroad  and  compare  the  structure,  habits,  and 
life  of  other  wild  ducks,  and  of  still  other  wild  birds, 
and  perhaps  of  other  animals,  before  we  can  draw 
general  conclusions  which  apply  to  large  classes.  In 
order  to  reach  general  truths  in  natural  science,  it  is 


METHOD    IN    SCIEN£E-  LESSONS,,,,     ,,,  ,  IQI 

necessary  to  make  comparisons  of  many  similar  and 
contrasted  objects.  Teachers  often  hasten  prema- 
turely to  these  results.  For  this  reason  it  is  almost 
dangerous  to  emphasize  the  teaching  of  such  general 
truths  in  elementary  science. 

A  general  conclusion  may  properly  spring  from  an 
observation  and  comparison  of  a  number  of  different 
specimens  of  the  same  class.  If,  for  example,  the 
stomachs  of  a  large  number  of  blackbirds  are  ex- 
amined by  the  scientist  at  different  seasons,  and 
while  showing  variety  of  food  still  point  to  certain 
foods  as  prevailing  and  common  to  all,  a  general  con- 
clusion can  be  drawn  in  regard  to  the  food  eaten  by 
these  birds.  It  is  important  that  these  general  con- 
clusions, which  are  the  results  of  observation  and 
study,  should  be  definitely  stated  in  accurate  form 
and  fixed  in  mind.  This  gives  us  our  law,  principle, 
or  rule  in  logical  or  scientific  form  so  far  as  the 
progress  of  the  study  admits  completeness. 

5.  A  general  law  or  truth  is  not  sufficiently  under- 
stood and  mastered  by  working  it  out  inductively  and 
by  bringing  it  to  definite  and  accurate  statement  for 
memorizing.  For  example,  we  may  illustrate  and 
work  out  a  rule  in  grammar  for  the  agreement  of 
subject  and  predicate,  but  to  convert  such  a  rule  into 
habit  so  that  the  correct  form  is  easily  used  when 
needed,  calls  for  frequent  and  varied  application  of 
the  rule.  We  may  understand  a  rule  in  arithmetic, 
but  many  varied  and  more  or  less  complex  applica- 


IO2       SPECIAL    METHOD   IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

tions  are  necessary  to  make  it  a  ready  guide  in 
arithmetical  work.  In  natural  science,  also,  the  ap- 
plications of  truth  and  law  are  infinite  in  variation 
and  complexity.  Every  animal  is  adapted  to  its 
environment,  with  structure  and  organs  suited  to  its 
needs  ;  but  we  must  notice  how  totally  different  these 
adaptations  are  in  fish,  fowl,  and  quadruped  before 
we  understand  the  scope  of  this  law,  and  are  ready 
to  detect  easily  its  variety  of  applications. 

In  addition  to  these  essential  points  in  treating 
topics,  there  are  several  phases  of  instruction  in  ele- 
mentary science  which  are  peculiar  to  that  subject. 
First  of  these  is  the  outdoor  excursion.  The  man- 
agement and  instruction  of  children  upon  an  outdoor 
excursion  requires  quite  a  different  kind  of  skill  from 
that  of  the  class  room.  For  outdoor  observation  and 
the  active,  somewhat  independent  exercise  of  their 
powers,  children  require  greater  freedom,  and  this 
freedom  they  easily  abuse.  To  keep  them  within 
proper  control,  and  yet  to  allow  them  that  larger 
scope  for  action  necessary  to  outdoor  studies  requires 
in  the  teacher  both  forethought  and  decision.  In  this 
kind  of  work  one  soon  learns  that  thoughtful  planning 
is,  if  anything,  more  necessary  than  in  class-room 
lessons.  The  tendency  of  children  in  primary  and 
intermediate  grades  is  to  scatter,  to  chase  after  any 
chance  butterfly  or  grasshopper.  To  give  a  proper 
direction  and  steadiness  to  their  efforts  it  may  be  well 
before  starting  to  point  out  the  chief  line  of  effort 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS  IO3 

and  at  times  on  the  excursion  to  call  the  children  to- 
gether for "  concentrated  attention,  much  as  in  the 
class  room.  Again,  it  may  be  necessary  to  scatter 
out  to  hunt  for  specimens  desired. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  social  spirit  and  a 
pleasant  companionship  between  pupil  and  teacher 
are  more  easily  cultivated  upon  excursions  than  in 
the  schoolroom.  One  may  also  get  quite  a  different 
estimate  of  the  superior  powers  of  some  children 
upon  these  outdoor  excursions,  than  in  the  more  con- 
ventional and  formal  school  work.  On  these  trips 
also  it  is  possible  to  teach  a  kindlier  regard  for  all 
living  things ;  the  wanton  plucking  of  flowers,  break- 
ing of  branches  and  plants,  frightening  of  birds  and 
animals,  can  be  changed  into  a  more  considerate,  un- 
obtrusive, and  brotherly  treatment  and  sympathy. 

Nature  study  calls  forth  two  kinds  of  observation 
which,  though  opposite,  should  be  cultivated  side  by 
side.  First,  is  the  close,  analytic  study  of  one  impor- 
tant topic  and  absorption  in  this  object  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  many.  It  may  lead  on  to  a  succession 
of  observations  following  up  the  early  history,  develop- 
ment, and  relations  of  a  single  organism.  Other 
topics  are  shut  out  so  as  to  concentrate  the  more 
effectually  upon  this  one.  Secondly,  nature  study 
should  teach  us  to  observe  many  things,  to  have  our 
eyes  wide  open  and  our  attention  receptive  to  a 
variety  of  objects,  perhaps  to  all  the  important  things 
that  move  before  our  vision.  We  need,  therefore,  not 


IO4      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

only  to  concentrate,  but  to  spread  our  observations. 
Children  go  out  upon  science  excursions.  The  pur- 
pose of  the  excursion  should  be  centred  upon  some 
particular  kind  of  tree,  as  a  hickory,  or  other  object. 
Careful,  analytic  study  of  its  parts  and  their  func- 
tions is  necessary,  and  the  close  relation  to  other 
plants,  and  to  animals  should  be  noted.  But,  in 
concentrating  attention  upon  this  one  object,  should 
they  close  their  eyes  to  other  equally  valuable  things 
in  their  environment  ?  It  seems  really  advisable  to 
combine  the  two  aims  to  make  the  excursion  count 
for  both  kinds  of  development  in  observation. 

It  is  necessary  in  any  well-planned  excursion  which 
partakes  of  the  character  of  real  instruction,  to  have 
some  central  and  controlling  object  for  study,  some- 
thing which  supplies  the  aim  of  the  excursion,  and 
determines  its  plan  and  movement.  But,  as  we  go 
on  our  way  toward  this  object,  or  in  search  of  it,  let 
our  eyes  be  open  and  watchful  for  the  multitude  of 
interesting  objects  and  phenomena  that  may  meet  us 
by  the  way.  In  this  manner,  incidentally,  we  shall 
gather  up  a  large  variety  of  the  most  valuable  experi- 
ence, and  not  be  turned  aside  seriously  in  our  hunt 
for  the  principal  game. 

If,  however,  we  should  go  out  upon  an  excursion 
with  no  particular  aim  in  view,  no  particular  result 
would  follow.  It  might  serve  well  enough  for  recrea- 
tion, but  not  for  the  more  serious  work  of  instruction. 

The  observations  and  specimens  collected  upon  an 


METHOD    IN   SCIENCE    LESSONS  IO5 

excursion  may  furnish  the  basis  of  several  later 
lessons  in  the  schoolroom.  These  observations  are 
often  superficial,  broken,  and  faulty,  and  the  more 
careful  work  of  the  schoolroom  may  give  a  much 
clearer  grasp  of  essential  points.  The  later  discus- 
sion of  things  seen  upon  an  excursion  may  put  much 
greater  meaning  into  the  facts  observed  than  the 
excursion  itself. 

One  main  purpose  of  excursions  is  to  give  children 
an  introduction  to  the  world  around  them,  and  to 
teach  them  what  to  look  for.  Their  own  observa- 
tions to  and  from  school  and  at  other  times  should 
bring  together  an  even  larger  collection  of  facts  than 
the  school  excursions. 

The  second  point  to  be  named  is,  how  to  deal  with 
specimens  which  have  been  collected  for  class-room 
study.  One  of  the  serious  faults  is  a  failure  to  bring 
together  a  sufficient  quantity  and  variety  of  material 
for  examination  in  the  class.  One  must  look  ahead 
several  days  to  make  provision  for  this.  Children 
should  be  encouraged  within  proper  limits  to  bring 
in  specimens  for  class  inspection.  The  disposition 
in  the  children  to  take  some  pains  in  doing  this  is  a 
good  proof  that  the  study  is  taking  hold  of  them. 
The  teacher  will  naturally  wish  to  get  out  a  good  deal 
into  the  open  to  observe  and  locate  objects  and  places 
of  interest,  and  to  collect  material  for  the  class.  But 
for  the  teacher  to  do  all  of  this  is  unduly  burdensome, 
and  the  children  are  left  inactive  and  helpless  in  the 


IO6      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

very  thing  upon  which  their  self-activity  should  be 
developed.  There  are  many  things  which  children 
with  a  little  direction  and  caution  can  collect,  as 
leaves  in  autumn,  ripening  seeds  and  seed  pods, 
butterflies  and  beetles,  vegetables  and  flowers  or 
plants  from  gardens  and  roadside,  cocoons,  stones, 
pebbles  and  shells,  grasses,  acorns  and  nuts,  pet  ani- 
mals, and  even  some  such  animals  as  frogs,  turtles, 
and  fishes.  Children  will  not  develop  or  continue 
this  kind  of  activity  in  observing  and  collecting  unless 
they  receive  kindly  recognition  and  attention  from 
the  teacher.  Many  teachers  have  been  quite  suc- 
cessful in  this  kind  of  nature  study  who  have  had  no 
regular  period  for  it  in  the  school  programme.  But 
whatever  the  children  bring  in,  be  it  chrysalis,  milk- 
weed pod,  flying-squirrel,  clam,  pussy-willow,  dande- 
lion root,  bloodroot,  oak  leaves,  maple  seed,  or  toad, 
time  is  taken,  at  recess  or  other  odd  intervals  or  in 
lessons  for  the  whole  school,  to  give  it  thoughtful 
and  sympathetic  attention.  Many  kinds  of  speci- 
mens can  be  collected  and  preserved  for  a  longer 
period,  both  to  furnish  a  richer  material  for  class 
study,  and  to  allow  a  broader  comparison  and  group- 
ing. The  mere  inspection,  arrangement,  and  careful 
grouping  of  the  specimens  as  they  are  brought  in 
gives  an  excellent  kind  of  study.  For  example,  the 
collection  of  the  blossoms,  seeds,  or  pods  of  box 
elder,  elm,  maple,  ash,  locust,  birch,  catalpa,  and 
other  hardwood  trees,  or  the  cones  and  seeds  of 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS 

evergreens,  or  even  the  young  seedling  plants  of 
different  trees,  is  thus  valuable  and  instructive. 
Teachers  are  sometimes  careless  or  indifferent  about 
the  things  brought  in  by  the  children.  These  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  till  they  have  to  be  cleared  away, 
and  are  thrown  out  or  destroyed.  This  is  a  direct  dis- 
couragement to  children  from  the  right  lines  of  work. 
One  of  the  pitiful  things  in  nature  study  is  to  wit- 
ness a  teacher  with  twenty  children  trying  to  make 
a  nature  lesson  out  of  a  single  dandelion  blossom,  or 
what  is  even  worse,  to  see  her  flying  about  just  be- 
fore the  lesson,  hunting  for  something  to  show  the 
children.  Even  where  an  abundance  of  specimens 
is  at  hand  so  that  each  child  has  several  to  examine 
and  work  with,  as,  for  example,  in  dealing  with  the 
rootstocks  of  perennials  like  the  dandelion,  yellow 
dock,  sweet  clover,  etc.,  it  requires  judgment  and 
skill  to  direct  wisely  the  observations  of  children. 
Even  to  have  the  specimens  ready  for  prompt  dis- 
tribution is  no  slight  matter.  It  would  seem  trivial 
to  mention  such  items  if  it  were  not  so  seldom  that 
we  do  these  things  promptly  and  neatly.  In  fact, 
neatness  and  orderliness  in  the  care  of  specimens 
and  in  the  arrangement  and  distribution  of  materials 
is  one  of  the  best  opportunities  the  teacher  can  have 
for  developing  in  herself  and  in  the  children  the 
right  habits.  To  tear  up  and  scatter  specimens 
about  in  a  slovenly  manner  is  bad  housekeeping  and 
bad  education. 


IO8      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Sometimes  the  teacher  is  overkind  to  the  children 
in  showing  them  what  she  sees.  It  is  better  to  keep 
one's  self  in  the  background  and  to  let  the  children 
hunt  for  themselves.  It  is  often  well  to  give  direction 
to  observation  by  a  question  which  is  as  clear  and 
non-committal  as  possible.  Instead  of  pointing  out 
to  the  children  that  the  internodes  on  the  corn-plants 
they  are  examining  are  shorter  near  the  ground,  a 
question  may  be  raised  as  to  the  length  of  the  inter- 
nodes  along  the  stalk,  and  the  reasons  for  what  they 
see.  Children  are  most  of  all  interested  and  awak- 
ened by  what  they  themselves  see  and  discover,  and 
their  self-activity  should  be  encouraged  to  the  utmost 
so  long  as  they  do  not  run  off  too  much  to  frivolous 
and  unrelated  things.  As  in  learning  to  swim,  they 
should  be  left  to  their  own  action  as  much  as  possi- 
ble, with  suitable  suggestion  and  occasional  timely  aid. 

In  making  experiments  in  the  laboratory  (in 
physics  and  chemistry  and  their  applications  or  in 
plant  physiology)  the  same  forethought  should  be 
exercised  by  the  teacher  in  providing  the  necessary 
apparatus  and  equipment  for  successful  experiment. 
Children,  of  course,  can  often  construct  or  help  to 
construct  simple  apparatus,  as  kites,  balloons,  sun- 
dials, suction  pumps,  wheel  and  pulley,  in  installing 
batteries  and  wires,  in  arranging  materials  for  simple 
chemical  reactions.  The  laboratory  is  the  place  for 
them  to  handle  the  materials,  and  to  experiment 
under  wise  direction.  Simple  home-made  apparatus, 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS 

prepared  by  teacher  and  pupils,  is  better  than  elabo- 
rate equipment. 

We  are  here  upon  the  debatable  ground  between 
natural  science  and  manual  training.  Wherever 
simple  constructions  are  made  or  experiments  per- 
formed by  the  children,  requiring  some  degree  of 
thoughtfulness  and  skill  in  putting  materials  to- 
gether, manual  training  is  actually  present  in  its 
best  form.  It  seems  quite  admissible  that  some  of 
these  constructions,  requiring  the  working  out  of 
definite  problems,  should  be  turned  over  to  the 
manual  training  phase  of  instruction.  Where  the 
schools  do  not  provide  for  manual  training  this  will 
have  to  be  done,  so  far  as  possible,  in  the  science 
studies.  But  a  very  interesting  problem  of  correla- 
tion is  here  to  be  worked  out.  In  our  "  Special 
Method  in  Manual  Training  and  Constructive  Work  " 
a  solution  of  this  problem  is  attempted. 

In  the  study  of  machines  and  inventions  in  each 
case  a  problem  is  offered  for  solution.  How  does  a 
common  oil  lamp  work  ?  The  result  is  evident,  but 
what  part  does  the  oil,  the  wick,  or  the  chimney  per- 
form in  producing  the  result  ?  Show  the  whole 
movement  from  the  oil  to  the  light  and  its  effect. 
What  is  the  arrangement  for  securing  fresh  air  and 
why  is  it  necessary  ?  Study  a  windmill  and  see  how 
all  the  parts  are  built  to  produce  the  final  result  of 
pumping  water  or  grinding  grain.  This  in  most 
cases  demands  a  strong  exercise  of  close  observation 


IIO      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

and  thought.  In  many  machines,  as  a  pump,  steam- 
engine,  or  heating  plant,  some  of  the  important  parts 
are  concealed.  After  watching  the  external  working 
of  the  pump,  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  it  to  pieces 
to  find  the  construction  of  its  inner  parts.  To  bet- 
ter understand  a  door  lock  or  a  milk  separator,  they 
should  be  taken  to  pieces  and  closely  examined. 
Sometimes  a  blackboard  diagram  which  shows  the 
interior  parts  and  working  of  a  machine  is  better 
than  anything  else.  It  is  an  interesting  question 
whether  a  diagram  illustrating  the  action  of  a  steam- 
engine  is  not  better  than  the  machine  itself,  when 
combined  with  questions  and  explanations  by  the 
teacher.  It  may  be  well  first  to  examine  the  sim- 
plest form  of  the  steam-engine  we  can  find  and  inter- 
pret it  as  far  as  possible.  This  will  at  least  bring 
to  light  one  or  two  of  the  main  problems.  We  may 
then  resort  to  a  diagram  to  show  the  production, 
action,  and  result  of  the  steam  power.  We  meet 
with  a  similar  difficulty  in  studying  the  life  processes 
in  plant  and  animal.  The  movement  of  sap  in  a 
tree,  the  circulation  of  blood  in  an  animal,  are  often 
illustrated  in  the  books  or  on  the  blackboard  by  a 
diagram.  The  diagram  is  often  the  easiest  and  sim- 
plest method  of  presenting  the  fundamental  idea, 
especially  when  the  inner  parts  of  the  process  are 
not  visible.  This  is  true,  for  example,  in  the  process 
of  distillation,  of  the  blast  furnace,  of  the  hydraulic 
press,  etc. 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS  III 

There  are  even  more  difficult  and  intangible  pro- 
cesses in  nature,  illustrated  by  the  waves  of  light 
and  sound,  and  what  we  call  the  electric  current, 
which  can  be  best  conceived  with  the  aid  of  dia- 
grams and  drawings  in  connection  with  experimental 
apparatus. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  teacher  in 
nature  study  should  be  as  expert  as  possible  in  the 
use  of  all  the  graphic  means  of  illustration,  as  pic- 
tures, sections,  working  drawings,  outline  diagrams, 
and  models.  In  many  cases  these  are  merely  aids 
to  the  imagination  to  put  things  together  and  to 
conceive  the  essential  idea.  Many  of  the  text-books 
of  science  contain  these  excellent  diagrams,  which 
the  teacher  should  learn  to  construct  readily  on  the 
blackboard.  Many  also  of  the  semi-technical  and 
popular  treatises  on  natural  sciences,  especially  those 
which  show  the  common  applications  of  science 
to  life,  have  excellent  pictures  and  explanatory 
diagrams. 

It  should  never  be  forgotten  that  the  ability  of  the 
children  to  construct  these  diagrams  on  the  black- 
board and  to  explain  them  lucidly  is  one  of  the  best 
final  tests  of  the  mastery  of  machines  and  problems. 
A  good  example  of  the  value  of  pictures  and  dia- 
grams is  found  in  the  illustrations  of  the  linotype 
machine  in  "Progress  of  Invention  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,"  pp.  166-169;  also  the  diagrams  for 
modern  sanitary  house  plumbing  and  street  connec- 


112      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

tions,  pp.  256  and  257.  Many  excellent  illustrations 
are  given  in  this  and  in  other  popular  scientific  books. 
Very  crude,  graphic  methods  of  homely  illustration 
are  constantly  serviceable  in  teaching  a  class. 

It  is  a  disadvantage  to  both  teachers  and  pupils  to 
have  too  much  apparatus  and  manufactured  illustra- 
tive material,  though  some  things  are  indispensable. 
In  spite  of  the  fundamental  realism  and  direct  con- 
tact with  objects  in  science  study,  there  are  still  a 
good  many  devices  necessary  to  objectify  and  make 
tangible  the  teachings  of  science.  Many  things  can- 
not be  seen,  but  must  be  reasoned  out.  The  shape 
and  movements  of  the  earth,  for  example,  must  be 
typically  illustrated.  The  atomic  theory  has  to  be 
thought  rather  than  seen ;  the  circulation  of  the  blood 
(in  spite  of  the  frog's  foot  and  microscope)  must  be 
explained  by  diagram  or  manikin.  At  almost  every 
step  our  thought  goes  farther  than  our  sight,  and  yet 
needs  constantly  to  be  checked  up  and  verified  by 
the  actual. 

At  this  point  an  interesting  question  comes  up  as 
to  the  value  of  the  imagination  in  science  studies. 
The  tendency  to  exercise  the  imagination  in  science 
is  strong  in  all  grades,  from  the  primary  school  up 
through  the  university.  Primary  teachers,  especially, 
are  full  of  imaginative  suggestion  to  the  children,  and 
the  children  themselves  take  to  the  imaginative  forms 
of  thought  as  a  duck  to  water.  The  baby  seed  in  its 
cradle  is  waiting  for  the  warm  sunlight  to  call  it  up 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE    LESSONS  113 

above  the  ground.  The  papa  and  mamma  bird  take 
care  of  their  little  children.  The  pussy-willow  has  its 
warm  fur  coat  in  the  chill  of  early  springtime.  The 
snow  is  a  blanket  that  covers  up  the  flowers  in 
winter.  A  child  thought  the  half-moon  was  only 
half  buttoned  into  the  sky.  Such  fanciful  suggestions 
are  innumerable  in  the  instruction  of  children.  Some 
of  the  strict  construction  scientists  are  very  much 
opposed  to  this  imaginative  tendency  in  science 
work.  The  notion  is  that  science  is,  first  of  all,  valu- 
able for  its  adherence  to  the  real,  for  its  exclusion 
of  the  fancy.  Superstition,  guessing,  hearsay,  care- 
less inference,  fairy  tale,  are  all  shut  out,  and  we  are 
kept  close  to  the  unadorned,  incontestable  facts  —  the 
things  admitting  of  no  equivocation.  Natural  science 
is,  of  all  studies,  the  one  to  free  us  from  superstition 
and  convince  us  of  the  all-prevalence  of  law. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  children,  primary  teachers, 
and  poets  refuse  to  be  bound  down  to  the  plain  reali- 
ties. In  order  to  understand  nature  they  fall  back 
upon  the  aid  of  the  imagination.  In  the  fall  they 
think  of  the  tree  as  wrapping  up  its  tender  buds  in 
scales  ;  a  caterpillar  was  described  by  a  three-year-old 
girl  as  a  worm  with  a  fur  coat  on.  Teachers  who  have 
to  deal  with  children  fall  very  easily  into  such  forms 
of  description  as  are  best  understood  by  the  chil- 
dren. But  our  poets  also,  who  know  how  to  give 
distinctness  and  point  to  truth,  are  full  of  such  imag- 
inative touches. 
i 


114      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

"  Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might, 

An  instinct  within  it  that  reaches  and  towers, 
And  groping  blindly  above  it  for  light, 

Climbs  to  a  soul  in  the  grass  and  the  flowers." 

"  Laughed  the  brook  for  my  delight, 
Through  the  day  and  through  the  night, 
Whispering  at  the  garden  wall, 
Talked  with  me  from  fall  to  fall." 

"  The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  a  roof, 
'Neath  which  he  housed  him  winter  proof; 
All  night  by  the  white  stars'  frosty  gleams, 
He  groined  his  arches  and  matched  his  beams." 

It  would  be  impossible  to  quote  ten  lines  of  the 
best  poetry  of  nature  without  just  such  beautiful 
imaginative  touches. 

One  of  the  professors  of  natural  science  in  a  large 
university,  in  lecturing  before  a  body  of  a  thousand 
teachers,  asserted  "  that  parents,  teachers,  writers, 
and  educators  had  combined  of  late  into  a  syndicate 
for  teaching  children  lies."  This  refers  directly  to 
the  use  of  the  imagination  in  nature  studies  so  preva- 
lent, especially  among  primary  teachers.  The  ques- 
tion is  whether  the  imagination  can  be  dispensed 
with  in  nature  study,  either  by  the  child  or  by  the 
trained  scientist.  The  same  lecturer  spent  an  hour 
with  his  students  describing  the  different  theories  of 
heredity.  The  question  may  be  pertinently  asked, 
What  is  such  a  theory  ?  And  the  necessary  reply  is 
that  a  theory  is  not  a  fact  nor  a  collection  of  facts 


METHOD   IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS 

of  observation,  but  an  effort  of  the  scientist,  through 
his  reason  and  imagination,  to  give  meaning  and 
unity  to  the  facts.  Theories  are  often  found  to  be 
false,  but  the  effort  to  test  them  and  to  prove  their 
falsity  leads  closer  to  the  truth.  It  is  by  setting 
up  and  testing  hypotheses  that  the  scientist  makes 
discoveries. 

To  shut  out  the  use  of  imagination  in  nature 
study  is  doing  violence  to  a  child's  nature,  for  all 
his  thoughts  naturally  assume  imaginative  forms 
in  early  years.  How  flat  and  insipid  would  any 
nature  study  be  which  tries  to  bind  down  a  child's 
thought  to  what  is  manifest  to  the  senses  !  He 
can't  see  the  plant  grow.  He  only  sees  that 
changes  have  taken  place,  and  reason  and  imagi- 
nation must  help  him  to  the  rest.  It  is  on  the 
poetic  and  aesthetic  side  that  nature  makes  its 
strongest  appeal  to  children.  Many  of  the  great- 
est poets  have  been  the  closest  and  most  faithful 
observers  of  nature.  Goethe,  the  Shakespeare  of 
the  Germans,  ranked  among  the  greatest  scien- 
tists. Emerson,  Burroughs,  Thoreau,  and  Bryant 
are  poets  of  nature,  and  observers  also  in  the 
sense  in  which  we  wish  to  see  children  trained  to 
observe. 

It  is  certainly  the  business  of  nature  study  to 
teach  children  to  observe  accurately  and  to  have 
an  honest  respect  for  the  facts ;  but  in  reaching 
forward  to  the  laws  and  unities,  in  interpreting 


Il6      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

the  phenomena  of  organic  and  of  inorganic  mat- 
ter, the  imagination  is  indispensable.  Facts  and 
observations  are  often  only  stepping-stones  to  the 
child's  thoughts,  the  scaffolding  by  which  it  con- 
structs the  higher  forms.  Figures  of  speech  and 
poetic  analogies,  which  both  teachers  and  pupils 
use  so  often,  are  the  very  soul  of  good  instruction 
in  natural  science  as  well  as  in  other  studies.  As 
Burroughs  studies  the  birds,  his  imagination  puts 
a  human  sympathy  into  their  lives  which  is  better 
for  children  than  the  facts  and  skins  delivered  to 
us  by  the  dissecting  knife  and  the  taxidermist's 
skill.  Science  study  is  something  more  than  a 
collection  of  lifeless  memoranda. 

Some  primary  teachers  seem  to  outdo  the  chil- 
dren in  finding  sentimental  and  fanciful  resem- 
blances in  nature.  They  deal  in  baby  talk  and 
strain  after  impersonations  and  fanciful  analogies. 
This  is  only  a  good  thing  carried  to  a  ludicrous 
extreme.  But  any  one  who  walks  with  children 
among  birds  and  trees  and  butterflies  will  be  taught 
to  appreciate  their  impersonations  and  fanciful  de- 
scriptions, for  these  are  based  upon  the  apperceiv- 
ing  experiences  of  the  children.  The  exact  technical 
terms  of  science  are  unknown  to  the  children,  and 
should  not  be  forced  too  soon  upon  them.  They 
describe  with  much  originality  and  acuteness  and 
nearly  always  in  figurative  phrases. 

Professor  Tyndall,    in    his  essay  on  the  "Scien- 


METHOD   IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS 

tific  use  of  the  Imagination,"  treats  this  subject  as 
follows  :  "  How,  then,  are  those  hidden  things  to 
be  revealed  ?  How,  for  example,  are  we  to  lay 
hold  of  the  physical  basis  of  light,  since,  like  that 
of  life  itself,  it  lies  entirely  without  the  domain 
of  the  senses  ?  Now,  philosophers  may  be  right 
in  affirming  that  we  cannot  transcend  experience. 
But  we  can,  at  all  events,  carry  it  a  long  way  from 
its  origin.  We  can  also  magnify,  diminish,  qualify, 
and  combine  experiences,  so  as  to  render  them  fit 
for  services  entirely  new.  We  are  gifted  with  the 
power  of  imagination,  combining  what  the  Germans 
call  Anschauungsgabe  and  Einbildungskraft,  and  by 
this  power  we  can  lighten  the  darkness  which  sur- 
rounds the  world  of  the  senses. 

"There  are  tories  even  in  science  who  regard 
imagination  as  a  faculty  to  be  feared  and  avoided 
rather  than  employed.  They  had  observed  its  ac- 
tion in  weak  vessels,  and  were  unduly  impressed 
by  its  disasters.  But  they  might  with  equal  justice 
point  to  exploded  boilers  as  an  argument  against 
the  use  of  steam.  Bounded  and  conditioned  by 
cooperant  reason,  imagination  becomes  the  mightiest 
instrument  of  the  physical  discoverer.  Newton's 
passage  'From  a  Falling  Apple  to  a  Falling  Moon,' 
was  a  leap  of  the  imagination.  When  William 
Thomson  tries  to  place  the  ultimate  particles  of 
matter  between  his  compass  points  and  to  apply 
to  them  a  scale  of  millimeters,  it  is  an  exercise 


Il8      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

of  the  imagination.  And  in  much  that  has  been 
recently  said  about  protoplasm  and  life  we  have 
the  outgoings  of  the  imagination,  guided  and  con- 
trolled by  the  known  analogies  of  science.  In  fact, 
without  this  power  our  knowledge  of  nature  would 
be  a  mere  tabulation  of  coexistences  and  sequences. 
We  should  still  believe  in  the  succession  of  day  and 
night,  of  summer  and  winter;  but  the  soul  of  force 
would  be  dislodged  from  our  universe ;  causal  rela- 
tions would  disappear,  and  with  them  that  science 
which  is  now  binding  the  parts  of  nature  to  an 
organic  whole  "  ("  Half  Hours  with  Modern  Scien- 
tists," p.  250). 

The  question  as  to  what  kind  of  note-books  and 
drawings  children  shall  make  and  keep  is  important. 
Even  in  primary  grades,  in  making  a  weather  chart 
and  in  drawing  crude  illustrations  of  objects,  the 
children  make  much  use  of  brush,  pencil,  and  chalk. 

In  intermediate  grades  the  blackboard  is  regularly 
employed  in  illustrating  the  parts  and  arrangements 
of  flowers,  seeds  and  plants,  insects  and  birds.  Upon 
excursions  it  is  well  to  get  the  children  early  to  note 
down  important  points,  new  names,  and  to  sketch  in 
their  note-books  objects  of  special  interest  which  can- 
not be  transferred  to  the  schoolroom.  This  sketch- 
ing intensifies  observation  and  becomes  an  interesting 
activity.  From  the  fourth  grade  on,  it  has  proved 
useful  in  some  schools  to  keep  in  a  good  composition 
book  a  brief  outline  of  all  the  topics  in  nature  study 


METHOD    IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS 

of  the  year.  This  holds  both  teacher  and  pupils  to  a 
certain  defmiteness  and  orderly  system  which  pre- 
vents a  great  amount  of  scattering  and  incoherent 
work.  Grammar  school  pupils  should  be  held  to  a 
somewhat  strict  account  in  their  note-books  of  the 
topics  treated  upon  excursions  and  in  class.  Draw- 
ings to  illustrate  machines,  processes,  landscapes, 
natural  phenomena,  and  phases  of  plant  and  animal 
life  are  a  natural  outgrowth  of  such  instruction,  and 
should  be  incorporated  into  their  proper  places  in  the 
note-book.  The  power  to  describe  and  express  in 
written  form  what  they  have  observed  is  a  phase  of 
elementary  science  work,  especially  in  the  grammar 
school,  which  is  worthy  of  special  emphasis. 

The  question  to  what  extent  teachers  in  science 
lessons  should  set  before  the  children  facts  not  pres- 
ent to  observation  brings  up  an  interesting  problem. 
It  has  been  usual  to  say  that  nature  study  is  object 
study  and  should  be  held  to  the  real.  But  many 
subjects  reach  out  far  beyond  the  possible  observa- 
tions of  the  children.  The  wild  duck  cannot  be  fol- 
lowed toward  the  pole  except  in  imagination.  Of 
scarcely  any  animal  can  we  observe  its  whole  life 
history  but  rather  sections  and  parts.  In  dealing 
with  weather  topics,  public  and  private  sanitation, 
the  constructions  of  important  machines  and  pro- 
cesses in  manufacture  which  illustrate  the  applications 
of  science  to  life,  we  may  be  able  to  illustrate  some 
of  the  facts,  but  many  of  the  most  important  things 


120      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

necessary  to  a  clear  illumination  of  the  subject  must 
be  drawn  from  a  region  beyond  the  experience  of 
children.  The  unit  of  instruction  which  needs  to  be 
cleared  up  as  a  whole  must  determine  to  what  extent 
these  outside  facts  may  be  drawn  upon.  Even  in  the 
study  of  the  squirrel  or  the  robin  some  of  the  facts 
observed  can  be  best  understood  in  the  light  of  facts 
which  the  teacher  has  seen  elsewhere  or  has  obtained 
from  reliable  books  or  observers.  As  in  geography 
or  history,  the  teacher  must  determine  what  facts  are 
needed  to  give  unity  and  the  best  comprehension 
of  the  subject. 

The  children  themselves  may  even  make  a  very  good 
use  of  some  of  the  better  books  of  nature  study, — 
"Squirrels  and  other  Fur  Bearers,"  "Wild  Neigh- 
bors," "Birds  and  Bees,"  "Secrets  of  the  Woods"; 
and  yet,  as  I  look  over  a  considerable  library  of 
nature  study  books,  I  do  not  find  many  that  children 
voluntarily  read.  The  life  and  observations  of 
children  in  fields  and  woods  should  awaken  and 
interest  them  so  that  they  will  more  readily  read  and 
enjoy  such  books ;  and,  on  the  other  side,  the  best 
nature  books  are  likely  to  make  children  more  inter- 
ested in  natural  things. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  in 
elementary  science  as  in  other  studies  is  the  proper 
connection  of  lessons  in  any  grade  with  those  that 
precede.  The  general  plan  and  arrangement  of  the 
topics  in  the  course  of  study  must  provide  largely  for 


METHOD    IN   SCIENCE   LESSONS  121 

this  connection  and  sequence.  But  in  the  teaching 
of  particular  lessons  there  are  great  opportunities  for 
securing  this  connection  and  for  building  up  cohe- 
rent bodies  of  experience.  Nearly  every  science  topic 
brought  up  in  later  studies  can  find  firm  footing  in 
topics  previously  studied  in  the  grades,  and  it  is  the 
business  of  the  teacher  to  hunt  out  these  earlier 
subjects  and  bring  them  into  sharp  review.  In  a 
previous  chapter  we  have  noticed  that  the  element- 
ary science  lessons  naturally  group  themselves  around 
a  few  centres,  the  home,  the  school,  the  playground, 
the  country  life,  garden,  etc.  Nearly  all  subjects  of 
nature  study  have  sprung  from  these  centres  and  are 
already  closely  related  to  one  another.  The  recur- 
ring seasons  bring  many  of  the  same  objects  previ- 
ously studied  prominently  into  view.  The  woods  or 
fields  in  spring  are  visited  again  under  similar  con- 
ditions, and  the  new  plants  and  flowers  studied  are  in 
the  same  environment  as  the  old  ones  and  illustrate 
many  of  the  same  ideas  and  laws  that  we  have  previ- 
ously worked  out.  The  old  observations  and  experi- 
ences constantly  weave  themselves  in  with  the  new. 
The  idea  of  the  type  and  of  type  processes  in  nature 
and  also  in  machines  and  human  contrivances  is  so 
wide-reaching  that  we  can  scarcely  name  a  topic  in 
later  studies  that  does  not  suggest  many  others  that 
have  been  studied  before. 

The  opportunity  which  is  here  offered  to  gather  up 
the  threads  which  have  been  dropped,  to  refresh  old 


122       SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

experiences,  to  suggest  comparisons,  to  even  dig  down 
for  hidden  treasures  which  have  been  lost,  should  not 
be  neglected.  The  course  of  study  should  enable  the 
teacher  in  a  middle  or  upper  grade  to  discover  what 
related  topics  have  been  treated  in  earlier  years ;  but 
even  in  the  absence  of  this,  questions  should  quickly 
bring  them  to  light.  In  studying  the  heart  and 
circulation  in  eighth  grade  is  furnished  the  best 
chance  to  review  digestion,  respiration,  and  several 
other  topics  on  health,  also  the  treatment  of  persons 
accidentally  cut  or  injured,  foods,  physical  exercise, 
etc.  Such  reviews  in  connection  with  later  topics 
are  of  great  advantage  in  several  respects.  They 
give  a  new  meaning  and  relation  to  the  old  topics, 
they  help  to  quickly  interpret  the  new  subject  and, 
as  in  the  case  just  cited,  they  show  the  important 
interrelations  and  dependence  of  the  different  organs 
of  the  body. 

The  importance  of  this  kind  of  retrospective  work, 
and  of  regarding  each  later  year's  lessons  as  a  means 
of  better  organizing  and  consolidating  all  the  earlier 
studies,  can  scarcely  be  overemphasized.  That 
teachers  have  failed  to  grasp  this  mode  of  instruction 
and  have  taught  each  lesson  or  topic  as  if  it  were 
uncompanionable,  without  friends  or  comrades  any- 
where, is  due  to  several  causes  :  first,  a  lack  of  a 
definite  course  of  study  in  elementary  science ;  sec- 
ond, a  feeling  that  each  year's  work  was  a  distinct 
and  independent  stage  ;  and  third,  the  conviction  that 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE   LESSONS  123 

the  method  of  knowledge  is  the  mere  acquiring  of 
facts  and  storing  them  in  the  mind.  There  is  a 
failure  to  see  that  the  important  ideas  run  through 
the  whole  course,  repeating  themselves  from  time  to 
time  in  varying  forms,  and  that  to  organize  the  facts 
along  these  central  lines  is  to  illuminate  and  unify 
the  fields  of  knowledge. 

A  glance  at  our  proposed  course  of  study  in  ele- 
mentary science  in  Chapter  IX  gives  at  first  an  im- 
pression as  of  a  miscellany.  But  the  tendencies 
toward  unity  and  simplicity,  if  followed  up,  will  give, 
we  think,  a  connected  body  of  knowledge. 

There  is  still  another  means  of  bringing  connec- 
tion and  unity  into  our  scientific  knowledge  almost 
equal  to  the  one  just  mentioned.  It  is  found  in 
tracing  the  very  close  connection  of  the  science 
topics  to  geography,  manual  training,  history,  and  a 
few  other  studies.  Without  going  deeply  into  this, 
for  it  has  been  discussed  more  fully  in  the  "  Special 
Methods  "  in  geography,  history,  and  manual  training, 
we  may  at  least  give  a  few  illustrations. 

In  a  great  many  geography  lessons  we  reach  the 
point  where  we  cast  longing  glances  over  the  line 
into  the  fields  of  science,  which  can  alone  answer 
the  questions  that  geography  raises.  The  fossil  re- 
mains in  the  rocks,  the  deposit  of  coal,  kerosene, 
metals,  etc.,  the  earth  as  one  in  the  family  of  planets 
(what  about  the  rest  of  the  family  ?),  the  plants  and 
fruits  of  the  soil  studied  in  geography,  the  processes 


124      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

and  machines  of  mining,  manufacture,  and  commerce, 
lie  half  in  the  fields  of  geography  and  half  in  that  of 
science.  Geography  carries  these  topics  halfway 
and  stops  short.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the 
story  is  to  be  continued  on  the  other  side  of  the 
line. 

This  overlapping  of  the  fields  of  knowledge  has 
been  making  the  schoolmaster  much  misery  of  late 
years.  Just  as  he  was  getting  all  the  subjects  nicely 
blocked  off  and  snugly  tucked  away,  each  in  a  safe 
place  by  itself,  or  at  least  with  a  Chinese  wall  around 
it,  the  levellers  with  their  doctrine  of  correlation 
come  along  and  obliterate  all  the  walls  and  fences. 
Correlation  seems,  in  other  words,  to  be  a  sort  of 
pedagogical  gunpowder  which  is  designed  to  knock 
down  those  heavy  walls  which  the  schoolmaster,  with 
so  much  expenditure  of  time  and  labor,  has  built  up. 

But  the  division  lines  between  the  studies  are  not 
obliterated.  The  walls  of  separation  are  indeed 
taken  away,  and  the  traffic  lines  now  run  directly 
across  them.  Just  as  railroads  and  rivers  pass  across 
state  boundaries,  carrying  traffic  to  and  fro,  bringing 
the  states  into  closer  unity  without  disturbing  the 
integrity  of  the  separate  states,  so  correlation  is  be- 
ginning to  build  its  great  traffic  routes  of  association, 
binding  all  the  studies  into  a  closer  compact. 

For  the  teacher  to  call  attention  to  these  impor- 
tant cross  connections  of  nature  study  with  geog- 
raphy, manual  training,  etc.,  is  to  help  the  children 


METHOD    IN    SCIENCE    LESSONS  12$ 

to  bind  together  those  things  which  belong  together 
in  their  minds. 

Manual  training,  like  a  Russian  giant,  is  laying 
hold  of  new  territories  and  constantly  encroaching 
upon  the  old  studies.  The  making  of  apparatus  for 
science  excursion  and  experiment,  the  preparation 
and  skilful  use  of  the  tools,  machines,  and  materials 
necessary  to  studies  in  botany,  zoology,  chemistry, 
physics,  and  astronomy,  and  still  more  the  construc- 
tion of  traps,  pumps,  and  devices  for  illustrating  the 
applications  of  science  to  life  —  all  these  are  really 
forms  of  manual  training.  The  more  closely  science 
and  manual  training  stand  together,  the  more  ably 
they  will  support  each  other,  and  the  better  will  be 
the  result.  For  manual  training  is  simply  an  em- 
phasis of  the  power  to  use  knowledge.  It  has  been 
the  boast  of  science  that  it  brings  children  up 
against  facts  and  realities,  but  manual  training  goes 
a  step  farther  and  teaches  children  the  simple  arts 
of  moulding  and  shaping  these  realities,  these  material 
things.  We  are  not  concerned  at  this  point  to  draw 
the  line  between  science  and  manual  training,  though 
it  must  be  done  in  arranging  a  full  course  of  study. 

History  and  drawing  have  likewise  many  points 
of  close  contact  with  nature  study,  but  this  will 
hardly  require  illustration  in  the  present  treatment. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher  in  the  class 
room  these  correlations  of  nature  study  with  other 
subjects  are  significant  because  they  give  added 


126      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

meaning  and  life  to  the  lesson.  When  the  science 
lesson  explains  the  turbine  wheel,  the  process  of  dis- 
tillation, the  vacuum  pan,  or  the  forms  of  crystalliza- 
tion, it  throws  light  upon  earlier  lessons  in  geography 
which,  if  recalled  and  brought  into  connection  with 
this  topic,  make  the  child  feel  that  he  is  getting  his 
bearings  and  is  seeing  the  great  connections  between 
things.  This  kind  of  teaching  of  course  requires 
thoughtfulness  and  many-sidedness  in  the  teacher, 
but  it  also  produces  these  same  qualities  in  the 
pupils. 

The  teacher,  therefore,  who  is  looking  for  con- 
nectedness and  unity  in  his  elementary  science 
course  will  see  to  it  that  the  varied  topics  of  the 
science  course  are  clustered  around  a  few  important 
centres  of  the  child's  own  life  and  activity,  that  the 
actual  class-room  instruction  upon  any  given  topic 
shall  not  fail  to  reach  back  into  the  earlier  lessons 
that  are  properly  associated  with  it,  and  that  the 
strong  cross  connections  of  science  with  history, 
geography,  manual  training,  and  other  studies  be 
allowed  their  full  natural  influence  upon  a  child's 
thought. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS 

The  Chicken 

THE  following  lesson  was  worked  out  by  Mrs.  Lida 
B.  McMurry  in  the  primary  grades  :  — 

In  the  story  of  "  The  Four  Musicians,"  when  they 
stopped  in  the  wood  for  the  night,  where  did  the 
rooster  settle  down  ?  (In  the  top  of  a  high  tree.) 
How  did  he  get  so  high  ?  (He  flew  to  one  of  the 
lower  branches,  from  there  to  a  higher  one,  and  so 
on.)  Why  do  you  think  so  ?  (I  have  seen  chickens 
fly  up  into  trees,  and  that  is  the  way  they  always  did 
it.)  Why  didn't  it  fly  directly  to  the  top  of  the  tree 
from  the  ground  ?  (Its  wings  are  not  strong  enough 
to  carry  its  heavy  body  so  far  without  stopping  to 
rest.)  Does  a  chicken  have  much  flying  to  do  ?  When 
does  it  fly  ?  (To  and  from  its  roost.)  Where  does  it 
roost?  Where  did  the  rooster  roost  after  his  good 
supper  in  the  robbers'  hut  ?  Have  you  seen  chickens 
fly  at  other  times  than  those  just  spoken  of  ?  (Some- 
times, when  they  cannot  get  through  a  crack,  they  will 
fly  over  a  fence.)  How  ?  [Children  repeat  their  obser- 
vations.] They  usually  fly  to  the  top  of  the  fence, 
light  there,  then  fly  down  on  the  other  side.  Why 

127 


128      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

do  they  make  so  much  noise  with  their  wings  ?  (It 
is  such  hard  work.) 

Do  you  know  what  is  sometimes  done  to  chickens 
to  keep  them  from  flying  over  fences  ?  (Their  wing 
feathers  are  clipped  on  one  wing.)  How  does  this 
hinder  them  from  flying  so  high  ?  (They  cannot 
balance  themselves.)  How  does  a  chicken  fly  ?  (By 
beating  its  wings  against  the  air.)  You  can  raise 
your  heavy  body  a  little  way  from  the  ground  by 
pushing  down  on  two  posts  driven  into  the  ground. 
A  bird  has  no  posts  to  push  against.  What  does  it 
press  against  ?  (The  air.)  That  is  always  handy, 
too.  [By  the  use  of  a  light  fan,  fanning  downward 
and  outward  rapidly,  the  children  become  conscious 
that  there  is  a  resistance  of  the  air.]  We  do  not 
wish  to  go  deeply  into  this  subject.  Perhaps  it 
would  be  wise  not  to  touch  upon  it  at  all,  but  usually 
the  interested  children  bring  up  the  question  and 
force  some  explanation  of  how  birds  fly.  The  motions 
of  the  wings  made  by  the  chicken  in  flying  —  are 
they  slow  or  rapid  ?  In  raising  its  wing  why  does 
not  the  air  above  push  the  bird  back  ?  The  chicken 
does  not  raise  its  wing  straight  up ;  it  cuts  through 
the  air  with  the  front  of  the  wing,  so  (showing  with 
the  fan.) 

You  have  seen  the  wing  of  a  chicken  on  the  dinner 
table  and  it  looks  much  smaller  than  when  on  the 
chicken.  Why  is  that  ?  (It  has  the  feathers  off.)  [If 
possible,  the  teacher  should  have  a  gentle  hen  in  the 


ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS  I2Q 

class,  also  the  wing  of  a  dressed  chicken,  and  a  wing 
with  feathers  upon  it.  Compare  in  size  the  two 
wings.]  Is  this  hen  going  to  fly  now  ?  How  do  you 
know  she  is  not  ?  (Her  wings  are  not  spread.)  The 
teacher  extends  and  contracts  gently  the  wing  of  the 
hen  a  few  times.  Does  that  make  you  think  of  any- 
thing you  sometimes  see  ?  (A  fan.)  When  does  the 
chicken  close  its  fans  ?  When  it  does  not  wish  to 
use  them  in  flying  ?  Why  does  it  not  keep  them 
stretched  out  all  of  the  time  ?  (They  would  be  in  its 
way.)  When  ?  Can  you  show  with  your  arms  how 
the  hen  closes  her  wings  or  arms  ?  What  does  she 
do  when  she  wishes  to  fly  ?  [Children  relate  their 
observations.]  Show  how,  starting  with  your  arms 
in  the  position  of  the  closed  wings.  This  will  require 
close  observation.  [Call  attention  to  the  position  of 
the  thumb  or  forefinger  in  the  dressed  wing.]  Do 
your  arms  now  look  like  the  chicken's  spread  wing  ? 
(No,  the  skin  that  holds  the  two  parts  of  the  hen's 
arm,  or  wing,  together,  is  wanting  in  our  arm.)  What, 
then,  can  you  do  with  your  arms  that  the  hen  cannot 
do  with  hers  ?  (Stretch  them  out  straight.)  Picture 
on  the  board  John's  arm  stretched  out.  Beside  it 
picture  the  dressed  wing  stretched  out.  What  is  this 
wing  made  of?  (Skin  and  bones  and  muscle.)  Can 
you  think  of  any  reason  why  it  may  be  well  that  there 
is  no  more  meat  on  it  ?  (The  meat  would  make  the 
wing  heavy.  She  would  tire  holding  out  a  heavy 
wing  in  flying.) 


I3O      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

But  the  hen  has,  besides  the  skin,  bones,  and  muscle, 
what  ?  (Feathers.)  Do  these  help  or  hinder  her  fly- 
ing? (She  spreads  out  these  feathers  and  strikes 
against  much  more  air  than  the  naked  wing  could 
press  against.  She  could  not  rise  at  all  with  the 
naked  wing.)  Let  us  look  at  one  of  these  large  wing 
feathers  and  see  if  we  think  it  is  the  kind  the  chicken 
needs  for  flying.  Lift  it.  (It  is  so  light  that  I  can- 
not feel  its  weight.)  Does  the  chicken  need  light 
feathers  ?  Why  ?  Is  this  feather  straight  ?  (No, 
it  curves  downward  a  little.)  Is  this  well?  The 
feathers  hold  the  air  under  better  than  they  would 
if  they  were  flat.  [They  will  notice  the  difference 
in  pressure  of  a  concave  and  a  flat  fan.]  How  many 
of  these  long  feathers  ?  Does  it  need  so  many  ? 

Pull  a  feather  from  this  wing,  Elta.  [The  feather 
comes  only  after  hard  pulling.]  Is  it  well  that  they 
are  fastened  so  tightly  ?  Why  ?  We  will  look  closely 
at  these  feathers.  This  middle  part  is  called  the 
shaft.  Each  side  is  called  a  web.  Is  the  web  of  the 
same  width  on  both  sides  ?  (Notice  how  the  feathers 
are  arranged  on  the  wing.)  The  narrow  web  of  one 
covers  the  wide  web  of  its  neighbor.  Only  one  side 
needs  to  be  long  and  the  chicken  wishes  to  have 
as  light  wings  as  possible,  as  we  have  said  before. 
Can  you  think  of  any  reason  for  having  the  narrow 
web  over  the  wide  one  ?  Examine  the  wing.  Would 
it  do  just  as  well  to  have  the  wide  web  over  the 
narrow  ? 


ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS  131 

Notice  one  little  piece  of  the  web.  That  is  called 
a  barb.  Separate  carefully  these  barbs.  (They  cling 
closely  together.)  After  you  have  separated  them, 
smooth  them  down.  What  do  you  notice  ?  (They 
cling  as  before.)  Hold  the  feather  up  to  the  light 
as  you  slowly  separate  these  barbs.  What  do  you 
see  ?  (Each  barb  has  little  teeth  on  both  sides. 
These  teeth  fit  into  those  of  the  barb  next  to  it.) 
Is  that  well  for  the  chicken  ?  (Yes,  if  the  feathers 
let  the  air  right  through,  it  would  leave  nothing  to 
press  against  and  the  chicken  would  not  rise.)  Of 
what  use  are  these  feathers  ?  Above  these,  what  ? 
Can  you  think  how  else  the  chicken  is  helped  by 
having  feathers  that  shut  out  the  air  ?  (Its  body  is 
kept  warmer.)  How  are  the  little  chickens  helped  by 
such  feathers  ?  (The  wings  cover  the  little  chicks 
at  night  and  at  other  times,  and  so  keep  them 
warm.) 

Are  all  the  barbs  on  the  hen's  feathers  hooked 
together?  [Examine  one  of  the  small  feathers.] 
On  which  part  of  the  feather  are  the  barbs  hooked 
together  ?  (On  the  part  that  is  on  the  outside  of  the 
chicken.  The  part  that  is  covered  is  softer  —  more 
like  down.)  How  are  the  small  feathers  arranged  on 
the  hen  ?  (They  all  point  backward  from  the  head, 
and  grow  one  over  another  like  the  shingles  on  a 
house,  only  closer  together.  The  barbed  part  is  on 
the  outside.)  Is  this  well  for  the  hen?  Why?  (It 
makes  a  very  thick  cover,  keeping  out  the  cold,  and 


132      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

also  sheds  the  rain  quite  well,  the  rain  running  off 
the  end  of  one  feather  on  to  the  next,  and  so  on  until 
it  drops  to  the  ground.)  Have  all  the  feathers 
barbs  ?  Where  do  you  find  feathers  without  barbs  ? 
Notice  how  a  hen  stands  in  the  rain.  (With  her  tail 
drooping,  as  if  to  let  the  rain  have  a  chance  to  run 
off  by  the  way  of  her  tail  feathers.)  In  what  other 
way  is  the  chicken  helped  to  keep  dry  in  rainy 
weather  ?  Have  you  noticed  what  a  hen  sometimes 
does  during  a  rain  ?  (She  oils  her  feathers  so  they 
will  shed  the  rain.)  Will  oil  shed  water?  How  do 
you  know?  Have  oiled  paper  in  the  class.  Pour 
water  on  it  and  see  what  happens.  Where  does  the 
chicken  get  the  oil?  (From  a  little  sack  just  above 
the  tail.)  [Show  on  dressed  chicken.]  Where  does 
the  oil  come  out  ?  How  does  the  hen  get  it  out  ? 
(With  her  bill.)  How  can  she  reach  away  around 
there  with  her  bill  ?  (Her  neck  is  long  and  limber, 
and  she  can  twist  it  around  easily.)  How  does  she 
get  the  oil  out  ?  (Presses  down  on  the  sack  with  her 
bill,  and  it  comes  out  as  does  the  juice  when  you 
press  on  an  orange  in  which  you  have  made  a  hole.) 
How  does  she  carry  the  oil  to  the  feathers  ?  With 
her  bill  ?  How  put  it  on  the  feathers  ?  (She  passes 
each  feather  which  she  wishes  to  oil  between  her  two 
mandibles.) 

Her  bill  is  the  finest  comb  the  hen  has.  But  her 
hair  combing  is  no  queerer  than  her  bath.  Did  you 
ever  see  a  hen  bathing  ?  No  ?  Did  you  ever  see  a 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  133 

hen  in  an  ash  pile  or  in  a  pile  of  dust  fluttering 
around  ?  Just  what  did  she  do  ?  [Children  find  out 
if  they  cannot  tell.]  This  is  her  bath.  Does  she 
seem  to  enjoy  it?  What  does  she  do  when  she  is 
through  her  dust  bath  ?  Change  her  clothes  ?  No, 
but  she  shakes  out  the  dust  and  preens  her  feathers. 
(Smooths  her  old  dress.)  How  ?  Does  the  hen 
never  change  her  dress  ?  Have  you  not  .seen 
many  feathers  lying  around  the  hen-house?  Did 
something  pull  them  out  ?  Do  they  usually  come  out 
easily  ?  How  does  this  happen,  then  ?  (Little  by 
little  she  is  changing  her  dress.  An  old  feather  falls 
out  and  a  new  one  grows  in  to  take  its  place.  Some- 
times a  hen  loses  the  whole  of  her  tail  at  one  time.) 
When  does  this  changing  of  dress  happen  ?  (Late  in 
the  summer.)  Is  this  a  good  time  ?  Why  ?  How 
do  the  little  new  feathers  look  when  they  first  come 
in?  What  do  we  call  them?  (Pin  feathers.)  Ex- 
amine these  carefully  if  they  can  be  found  when  this 
is  studied.  Why  does  the  hen  need  to  change  her 
dress  at  all  ?  (The  feathers  wear  out  and  become 
much  mussed.)  Is  there  any  order  in  shedding  her 
coat  ?  [When  one  wing  feather  comes  out,  its  mate 
on  the  opposite  side  is  said  to  fall  out  also.  Watch 
and  see  if  this  is  so.]  Are  the  dresses  of  the  little 
chickens  like  their  mother's  ?  (No,  the  chickens  are 
covered  with  down.)  How  is  the  down  different 
from  feathers  ?  Children  see.  (Down  has  no  shaft 
and  web.)  Before  going  farther  the  children  tell 


134      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

what  they  have  learned  about  chickens'  flying,  their 
wings,  and  the  feathers. 

Have  any  of  the  other  animals  that  we  have  studied 
feather  coats  ?  What  kind  of  coats  did  they  have  ? 

Where  did  we  find  the  rooster  in  our  story  roost- 
ing at  first  ?  Where  later  ?  Where  do  the  chickens 
that  you  know  roost?  Why  should  they  leave  the 
ground  ?  (Sometimes  the  ground  is  cold  and  damp. 
When  on  a  high  roost  the  chickens  are  not  so  apt 
to  be  disturbed  or  killed  by  rats,  skunks,  dogs,  etc.) 
How  do  they  hold  on  to  the  roost  ?  [If  no  one  in  the 
class  can  tell,  the  children  may  be  given  time  to  find 
out  for  themselves  by  watching  the  chickens  at  home.  ] 
(Its  three  front  toes  curve  around  the  roost  in  front 
—  this  way — [showing  with  the  fingers]  while  its 
hind  toe  reaches  around  behind  and  steadies  it.) 
But  when  the  hen  is  asleep  will  she  not  stop  holding 
on  and  fall  off  ?  Notice  a  hen  as  she  raises  her  foot 
in  walking  slowly.  How  do  the  toes  look  ?  They 
curl  up  very  much  as  if  holding  to  a  perch.  When 
do  her  toes  spread  out  ?  (Only  when  her  feet  come 
down  on  the  flat  ground.  At  other  times  her  feet 
are  in  a  position  to  hold  on  to  a  perch.  And  the 
weight  of  her  body  only  tightens  her  hold.)  When 
on  the  perch  do  the  hens  stand  up  all  the  time 
or  do  they  sit?  Find  out.  Do  they  close  their 
eyes  ? 

At  what  time  of  day  do  chickens  go  to  their  high 
beds  ?  (About  as  soon  as  the  sun  goes  down.)  Do 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  135 

we  hear  from  them  at  all  during  the  night  ?  (The 
old  rooster  crows  occasionally.)  How  early  in  the 
morning  do  chickens  get  up  ?  (In  the  summer  time, 
as  soon  as  it  begins  to  be  light.  In  the  winter,  they, 
like  ourselves,  hate  to  get  up  into  the  cold,  so  they 
stay  on  their  beds  sometimes  until  after  sunrise.) 
Can  you  think  of  any  other  reason  why  they  do  not 
get  up  (or  get  down,  rather)  earlier  in  the  winter  ? 
They  have  not  so  much  work  to  do.  There  are  no 
bugs,  or  worms,  or  vegetables  to  which  they  may 
help  themselves.  What  do  they  eat  in  the  winter 
time  ?  Where  do  they  get  it  ?  Did  you  ever  notice 
how  the  hen  eats  the  corn  ?  [The  teacher  can  feed 
the  one  she  has  at  school.]  What  did  she  do  ? 
(Picked  up  the  kernels  very  fast  with  her  bill.)  What 
kind  of  a  bill  has  she  ?  (It  is  hard.)  Is  that  well  ? 
Why  ?  (It  is  strong.)  Why  does  she  need  a  strong 
bill  ?  (It  is  pointed.)  Why  is  this  a  good  thing  ? 
The  upper  mandible  is  curved.  Is  it  better  so? 
Why  ?  Notice  how  the  forefinger  is  curved  in  pick- 
ing up  a  pin  from  the  floor.  Notice  the  shape  of  the 
lower  mandible.  What  do  you  think  of  that  ?  The 
bill  has  sharp  edges.  Is  this  well  ?  (Yes,  the  chicken 
can  cut  off  pieces  of  leaves,  grass,  etc.,  very  easily 
with  such  sharp  knives.  She  can  cut  them  off  as 
fast  as  she  can  swallow  them.)  What  other  animals 
did  we  find  swallowing  food  very  rapidly  ?  (Cow  and 
sheep.)  But  was  this  the  last  we  heard  of  this  poorly 
chewed  food  ?  (No,  they  re-chewed  their  grass,  hay, 


136      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

etc.,  as  a  cud.)    Have  you  ever  seen  chickens  chew- 
ing a  cud  ?     (They  do  not.) 

Let  us  see  if  we  can  find  why  a  chicken  does  not 
chew  its  food.  With  what  do  we  chew  our  food  ? 
(Teeth.)  What  kind  of  teeth  has  the  chicken  ?  Very 
carefully  open  the  hen's  mouth  and  the  children  will 
see  that  she  has  no  teeth.  Then  why  does  the  chicken 
not  chew  its  food  ?  What  becomes  of  the  corn  that 
it  takes  into  its  mouth?  (It  swallows  it.)  How 
many  have  ever  watched  the  dressing  of  a  chicken  ? 
Did  you  see  its  crop  ?  Feel  right  here  on  our  hen. 
That  is  its  crop  that  you  feel.  The  food  that  it  swal- 
lows goes  first  into  that.  I  have  here  the  crop  of  a 
chicken.  We  will  open  it  and  see  what  we  find. 
[There  is  nothing  repulsive  about  this  to  the  chil- 
dren, as  all  have  seen  dressed  chickens,  and  many 
have  watched  the  process  of  preparing  them  for  the 
table.]  Now  the  corn,  grass,  etc.,  stay  in  the  crop 
until  they  are  very  well  soaked,  then  they  pass  on  to 
the  gizzard.  Do  you  know  the  gizzard  ?  It  is  the 
chicken's  stomach.  Here  is  one.  Feel  of  it.  It  is 
very  thick  and  tough.  We  will  open  it  carefully. 
[Peel  so  as  to  leave  the  inner  sac  intact.]  What 
kind  of  a  coat  is  this  outer  coat?  (Strong  and  thick.) 
We  will  open  the  inner  coat.  What  do  you  see? 
(The  food  ground  fine  and  some  pebbles.)  Take 
hold  of  this  inner  sac.  (It  is  tough  and  elastic.) 
Where  is  the  door  through  which  the  soaked  corn 
comes  into  the  stomach  ?  When  it  gets  inside  of 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  137 

this  mill  it  is  tossed  back  and  forth  with  the  stones 
and  becomes  very  fine,  as  you  see.  From  this  food 
the  chicken's  blood,  flesh,  fat,  and  feathers  are  made, 
and  its  muscles  and  bones  are  repaired. 

Name  other  things  that  the  chicken  eats  in  the 
winter.  And  in  the  summer  time  what  ?  Where  do 
they  find  the  bugs,  spiders,  etc.  ?  How  catch  them  ? 
[Children  watch  chickens  and  see.]  Where  do  the 
chickens  find  the  worms  ?  (In  the  ground.)  How 
get  them  out  ?  (With  their  sharp  toes.)  Did  you 
ever  see  a  chicken  scratch  for  worms  or  seeds  ? 
How  did  it  do  the  scratching  ?  Then  when  it  found 
something  good  to  eat  what  did  it  do  ?  (Picked  it 
up  quickly  with  its  bill  and  swallowed  it.)  What  if 
a  hen  with  her  little  chickens  finds  something 
good  ?  (She  calls  her  little  chickens  with  some 
quick  clucks  and  lets  them  have  what  she  has  found. 
When  they  get  over  being  hungry  she  feeds  herself.) 
How  can  she  see  the  little  seeds  and  bugs?  (She 
has  bright  eyes.)  Where  are  they?  Is  this  well  for 
her  ?  Why  ? 

We  have  spoken  of  the  hen's  food,  but  not  of  her 
drink.  What  does  she  drink?  How?  (Puts  her 
bill  into  the  water  and  then  raises  her  head.)  Does 
her  bill  move  when  in  the  water?  What  is  she 
doing?  (Filling  it.)  Why  does  she  raise  it?  (To 
let  the  water  run  down  her  throat.) 

How  do  you  think  the  rooster  that  belonged  to  the 
band  travelled?  (Walked.)  As  we  said  before, 


138      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

chickens  fly  but  little.  On  what  do  they  walk? 
(Their  toes.)  About  what  other  animal  that  walks 
on  his  toes  have  we  spoken  ?  (The  shepherd  dog.) 
Does  the  rooster  walk  as  the  shepherd  dog  does  ? 
(No,  it  walks  on  the  toes  of  two  feet,  the  dog  on  the 
toes  of  four  feet.)  On  how  many  toes  does  the 
chicken  step  ?  (Examine  tracks  in  snow  or  mud.) 
Does  the  hind  toe  help  any  in  walking  ?  Of  what 
use  is  it  ?  Are  the  front  toes  all  of  the  same  length  ? 
Which  is  the  longest?  Why  is  it  well  that  the 
chicken  has  long  toes  ?  (If  his  toes  were  very  short 
his  body  would  more  easily  tip  over.)  Are  their  long 
nails  in  the  way  when  walking  ?  Why  not  ?  Look 
at  the  base  of  the  front  toes.  (A  little  web  is  there.) 
Why?  What  keeps  their  toes  from  being  hurt  by 
stones,  rough  dirt,  stubble,  etc.  ?  (They  are  covered 
by  tough,  hard  rings.)  This  long  part  from  the  toes 
up  to  the  joint  is  the  chicken's  heel.  Is  the  heel 
naked  ?  No,  covered  by  plates  of  tough,  hard  skin. 
Have  you  ever  seen  any  chickens  with  feathers  on 
the  heel  and  toes  ?  Notice  how  tiny  are  the  little 
chicken's  toes.  Can  they  get  around  well  ? 

Did  you  ever  call  the  chickens  to  feed  them  ?  Did 
they  hear  you  ?  Then  what  did  they  do  ?  How  can 
the  chickens  hear  when  we  call  ?  Have  they  ears  ? 
Did  you  ever  see  them  ?  [Very  likely  the  children 
may  never  have  thought  of  a  chicken's  ears.]  The 
teacher  calls  attention  to  the  ears  on  the  tame  hen, 
or  better,  the  children  find  them.  Why  is  it  well 


ILLUSTRATIVE    LESSONS  139 

that  her  ears  are  so  small  ?    Why  do  the  ears  need  to 
be  thus  protected  ? 

It  is  said  that  a  hen's  scent  is  good,  as  well  as  her 
hearing.  How  can  we  find  out  if  this  is  so  ?  Where 
is  this  hen's  nose.  (The  children  will  find  its  nos- 
trils, quite  likely.)  How  are  they  protected  ? 

Now  look  at  this  hen  and  tell  me  what  you  like 
about  her  looks.  (Her  feathers  are  pretty.)  What 
is  it  that  you  admire  about  her  feathers  ?  What 
else  do  you  think  is  pretty  about  the  hen?  (She 
wears  a  pretty  red  comb  on  top  of  her  head.) 
How  do  you  like  the  looks  of  the  little  chicks? 
(They  are  cunning.)  How  are  they  dressed?  (In 
fluffy  down.)  With  their  round  bodies  and  heads, 
and  tiny  wings  and  bills,  and  bright  little  eyes  they 
make  a  beautiful  sight. 

Where  did  these  little  chicks  come  from  ?  (From 
eggs.)  How  do  you  know  ?  (Before  the  chickens 
are  hatched,  the  mother  hen  must  sit  on  the  eggs 
three  weeks,  keeping  them  warm  all  the  time,  or  they 
are  kept  warm  in  an  incubator.)  How  does  the  hen 
get  food  and  drink?  (She  leaves  the  nest  just  long 
enough  to  get  food  and  water.)  Would  you  know  a 
setting  hen  were  you  to  meet  one  ?  How  ?  When 
the  little  chicks  are  ready  to  leave  the  shell  who 
opens  their  shell  door  for  them  ?  (They  do.)  How  ? 
(Notice  the  little  drill  on  the  bill.)  Do  you  see  it  on 
the  bills  of  the  older  chickens  ?  At  what  time  of  the 
year  do  these  little  chicks  come  into  the  world  ?  (In 


I4O      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

warm  weather,  usually,  in  spring  or  summer.)  Why 
not  in  cold  weather  ?  How  do  they  get  a  living  when 
young  ?  How  many  little  chicks  has  the  mother 
often  to  scratch  for  ?  Does  she  complain  about  her 
hard  work?  (No,  she  likes  it.)  How  does  she  call 
her  little  chicks  when  she  finds  a  nice  worm  ?  How 
does  she  talk  with  them  as  she  walks  out  ?  And  how 
do  the  little  chicks  answer  her  ?  (By  a  happy  little 
"peep,  peep.")  But  when  one  gets  out  of  sight  of 
its  mother  or  gets  into  trouble  ?  (Then  it  cries  a 
loud,  long,  lonesome  wail,  until  its  mamma  hears  it 
and  runs  to  it,  or  some  person  comes  to  help  it.  It 
is  a  good  thing  a  chicken  can  let  us  know  when  it  is 
in  trouble.) 

What  kind  of  a  sound  does  the  mother  make  when 
she  sees  a  hawk  in  the  sky  or  a  snake  in  the  grass  ? 
What  does  this  sound  tell  the  little  chickens  to  do  ? 
(To  hide  in  the  grass.)  Does  the  mother  hide,  too  ? 
(No,  she  is  ready  to  fight  for  her  babies  if  there  is 
need  of  it.)  How  can  she  fight  ?  (With  her  bill, 
wings,  and  feet.)  Did  you  ever  see  her  fight  an 
enemy  ?  Tell  about  it.  Teacher  also  relates  in- 
stances. 

How  old  are  the  little  chickens  when  the  feathers 
begin  to  grow  ?  Where  do  you  first  notice  these  new 
feathers  growing  ?  How  big  are  the  little  roosters 
when  they  begin  to  crow  ?  How  well  do  they  crow  ? 
Tell  how  they  look  when  trying  to  crow. 

Review  the  life  of  the  little  chick  from  the  time  the 


ILLUSTRATIVE  LESSONS  \   14! 

hen  goes  on  to  the  nest  to  begin  her  setting,  up  to 
the  time  when  the  feathers  begin  to  grow.  Third 
eyelid.  Warmth  of  body. 

How  else  are  eggs  used  besides  for  setting  ?  Chil- 
dren tell  of  the  many  uses  of  eggs.  How  do  we 
know  that  a  hen  has  laid  an  egg?  (She  cackles.) 

The  Corn,  or  Maize 

A  mature  stalk  of  corn,  some  fifteen  feet  tall,  as  it 
has  just  reached  its  full  growth  in  the  field,  is  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  plant  life  that  can  be  found. 
Such  a  plant  is  one  of  the  chief  ornaments  in  any 
botanical  garden.  Its  powerful  stalk,  broad  pennon- 
like  leaves,  towering  tassels,  and  heavy  ears  loaded 
with  grain  would  furnish  an  unparalleled  symbol  of 
the  richness  and  strength  of  agriculture.  And  this 
marvel  of  growth  and  perfection  has  been  produced 
in  about  four  months  of  the  summer  season. 

The  maize  is  the  characteristic  cereal  of  the  west- 
ern world.  Its  history  is  bound  up  with  that  of 
America  from  times  long  before  Columbus  to  the 
present,  and  it  takes  first  rank  now  among  the  great 
cereals  of  the  world. 

Its  native  home  was  originally  in  Mexico  or  the 
warmer  parts  of  America,  but  its  cultivation  now  ex- 
tends into  Minnesota  and  through  all  the  states  of  the 
Union.  The  full  growth  and  ripening  of  the  maize 
requires  a  warm,  summer  climate,  so  that  it  is  not 
raised  in  northern  Europe  as  in  Germany  and  in 


142       SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

England.  But  its  cultivation  is  extensive  in  south- 
ern Europe,  in  Africa,  and  in  Asia. 

The  full-grown  corn  plant  is  interesting  from  the 
peculiar  adaptation  of  its  various  parts  to  their  uses. 
The  main  stalk  consists  of  a  series  of  nodes  and  inter- 
nodes,  very  thick  and  heavy  at  the  bottom,  but  taper- 
ing gradually  toward  the  top  where  there  is  little 
strain.  This  stalk  is  hollow  except  at  the  joints,  or 
is  filled  with  a  light  pith  which  adds  little  to  the 
strength  or  weight  of  the  plant.  This  tubular  struc- 
ture gives  great  strength  with  least  weight,  and 
seems  based  on  the  same  principle  as  the  tubular 
column  in  iron  construction  of  buildings.  At  the 
joints  or  nodes,  however,  the  stalk  is  solid  and  hard 
so  that  the  stalk  is  prevented  from  bending  and  col- 
lapsing as  a  long,  hollow  cane  would  easily  do.  The 
lower  part  of  the  stalk  has  thick,  short  internodes  so 
as  to  give  greater  strength,  for  the  great  height  of  the 
plant  produces  a  heavy  strain  upon  the  lower  parts. 
The  hard  part  of  the  outer  stalk  consists  of  long 
woody  fibres  closely  packed  and  producing  a  strong 
rind.  The  pithy  inner  part  of  the  stalk  has  only 
scattered  threads  of  strong  fibre. 

The  long,  graceful  leaves  are  fastened  to  the  nodes. 
Each  of  these  long  leaves  consists  of  two  distinct 
parts,  the  sheath  and  the  blade.  The  lower  part,  or 
sheath,  rising  from  the  joint,  circles  the  stalk  above 
and  clasps  it  tightly,  forming  a  complete  tubular 
incasement  the  whole  length  of  the  internode. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  143 

From  the  top  of  the  sheath  the  distinctly  marked 
blade  swings  out  from  the  stalk  and  droops  grace- 
fully downward.  Long  threads  or  fibres  run  parallel 
lengthwise  of  the  leaf  and  give  it  strength  and  flexi- 
bility, the  structure  of  the  sheath  and  blade  is  such 
that  the  whole  leaf  swings  somewhat  freely,  and  in 
a  strong  wind  makes  the  least  pull  or  strain  upon 
the  main  stalk.  This  free  motion  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  sheath  is  flexible  at  the  top,  and  the  edges 
of  the  blade  are  scalloped  so  as  to  allow  an  easy 
bending  of  the  blade  from  side  to  side. 

At  the  point  of  union  of  the  sheath  and  blade  is 
the  rain  guard,  which  prevents  the  rain  from  flowing 
into  the  pocket  between  the  sheath  and  stalk,  and 
carrying  waste  material  to  injure  the  plant.  Instead 
of  this  the  water  rolls  off  and  is  carried  to  the  roots 
of  the  plant  where  it  will  do  best  service.  We  shall 
notice  later  that  the  sheath  and  blade  in  other  im- 
portant ways  contribute  to  the  growth  and  protection 
of  the  whole  plant. 

It  is  easily  observed  that  about  halfway  up  the 
stalk  the  main  ear  grows  in  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  or 
rather  between  the  sheath  and  the  stalk.  In  its  ear- 
lier growth  it  is  completely  wrapped  and  covered  by 
the  sheath,  but  with  growing  size  it  makes  room  for 
itself  and  forces  back  the  sheath,  projects  its  silk 
into  sight,  and  as  it  ripens  bends  down  with  its 
heavy  weight  and  hangs  outside  the  sheath. 

An   examination    of   the   means  of  attaching  the 


144      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

base  of  the  ear  to  the  axil  of  the  leaf  will  bring  out 
the  curious  fact  that  the  ear  itself  is  the  end  of  a 
jointed  stalk  similar  to  that  of  the  whole  corn  stalk, 
and  that  the  husks  which  wrap  the  ear  are  successive 
leaves  on  this  short  stalk  very  similar  to  those 
attached  to  the  main  stem.  In  fact,  the  outer  husks, 
enveloping  the  ear,  are  seen  to  have  short  blades 
separated  from  the  sheathlike  husk  by  a  rain  guard. 
In  their  general  structure,  the  ear  and  husks  have 
the  same  form  as  the  main  stalk  and  leaves. 

The  growth  of  the  ear  and  the  ripening  of  the 
seeds  of  corn  on  the  cob  may  be  regarded  as  the 
centre  of  operations  for  the  whole  corn  plant.  All 
the  parts  may  be  looked  upon  as  branches  of  a 
manufacturing  establishment  for  storing  the  ear  with 
well-ripened  seeds.  The  broad  leaves  spread  them- 
selves in  the  sun  and  prepare  the  food  for  the  growth 
of  the  plant  and  for  storing  the  seeds  with  nutriment. 
The  roots  gather  moisture  and  strength  from  the 
soil,  and  other  parts  convey  this  gathered  food  from 
the  soil  to  the  ear. 

The  corn  plant  provides  for  the  development  of 
its  seeds  in  a  curious  way.  The  ear  is  a  spike,  cov- 
ered thickly  with  pistillate  blossoms,  with  long  hair- 
like  pistils  whose  ends  hang  as  the  "silk  "from  the 
tip  of  the  ear.  The  staminate  blossoms  are  in  the 
tall  tassel  which  as  it  tosses  in  the  breeze  shakes 
from  its  yellow  cells  the  abundant  pollen  grains  and 
scatters  them  widely  by  the  aid  of  the  wind.  When 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  145 

one  of  these  pollen  grains  falls  upon  a  silken  hair, 
it  causes  the  ovule  of  corn  connected  with  this  deli- 
cate thread  to  germinate  and  grow  to  a  full  seed.  If 
one  walks  through  a  corn-field  in  September,  he  will 
find  all  the  leaves  and  stalks,  and  even  the  ground, 
powdered  with  these  pollen  grains.  There  is  then 
little  danger  but  that  all  the  silks  will  be  well  pow- 
dered with  the  fertilizing  pollen,  so  that  the  ears  will 
be  richly  stored.  The  pollen  from  one  plant  is 
blown  and  scattered  upon  the  neighboring  stalks, 
producing  what  is  called  cross-pollination,  which  is 
supposed  to  produce  a  better  result  than  when  the 
grains  fall  from  the  tassel  upon  the  silks  of  the  same 
plant.  Not  only  is  there  an  abundant  supply  of  pollen 
in  the  tassels,  but  the  silks  remain  fresh  and  green  for 
several  days,  so  that  in  case  of  rainy  weather  there  is 
still  time  to  fertilize  the  silks  after  the  rains  are  over. 
While  the  grains  on  the  ear  are  growing  and  filling 
they  are  soft  and  tender,  and  are  said  to  be  in  the 
milk.  At  this  time  they  make  good  roasting  ears. 
Sometimes  the  grub  of  the  corn-worm  hatches  out 
in  the  end  of  the  ear,  and  eats  its  way  into  the  rich 
grains  of  corn,  partly  spoiling  the  fruit.  The  birds 
would  doubtless  enjoy  the  sweet,  tender  corn  at  this 
stage  of  its  growth,  but  the  ear  is  well  protected  by 
a  thick  cover  of  green  husks,  so  that  its  outside 
enemies  cannot  easily  get  into  it.  Sometimes  a 
kind  of  smut  attacks  the  ear  and  produces  a  great 
puffy,  black  mass,  completely  spoiling  the  ear. 


146      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

In  many  parts  of  the  country  the  growing  corn- 
fields  are  seriously  damaged  by  the  chinch-bug, 
which  sometimes  infests  the  growing  corn  in  great 
numbers.  They  are  little  black  insects  which  suck 
the  juices  from  the  leaves  and  stalk,  and  ruin  the 
fields.  The  Agricultural  Station  at  the  University  of 
Illinois  and  those  of  other  western  states  have  experi- 
mented in  all  sorts  of  ways  for  checking  the  ravages 
of  the  chinch-bug.  Among  other  things,  bugs  in- 
fected with  parasitic  diseases  have  been  sent  out  to 
the  farmers  to  spread  the  disease  among  the  insects 
in  the  fields.  Circulars  are  also  sent  out  from  the 
State  University  describing  the  best  methods  of 
fighting  the  chinch-bug.  It  has  been  computed  that 
the  losses  to  farmers  of  the  United  States  in  a  single 
year,  from  the  damages  of  the  chinch-bug,  amount  to 
twenty  million  dollars. 

When  the  ear  ripens  in  the  fall,  the  grains  become 
hard  and  are  firmly  attached  to  the  cob,  so  that  in 
gathering  and  husking  it  the  grains  do  not  shell  off. 
If  this  were  not  true  the  corn  would  not  be  of  much 
advantage  to  man.  Most  plants  drop  or  scatter 
their  seed  when  ripe,  but  the  corn  holds  it  tightly, 
and  man  is  able  to  collect  and  store  it  for  use.  In 
this  respect  it  is  much  like  wheat  and  other  grains. 

The  roots  of  the  corn  plant  by  which  it  is  able  to 
hold  itself  upright  in  spite  of  its  great  height  are  of 
curious  interest.  A  close  examination  will  show  that 
there  are  several  short  nodes,  crowded  close  together 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  147 

near  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  that  roots  start 
out  from  these  and  firmly  anchor  the  plant  in  the 
spongy  soil.  Besides  these  roots  in  and  near  the 
surface,  one  or  two  of  the  nodes  above  the  surface 
often  send  down  brace  roots  which  not  only  root 
themselves  in  the  ground  (looking  something  like 
the  stays  of  a  ship's  mast),  but  they  are  stiff  and  hard 
and  even  serve  to  brace  the  stem.  Any  one  who 
will  try  to  draw  a  large  corn  plant  from  the  ground 
will  find  how  firmly  it  is  anchored,  and  how  stout  its 
roots  are. 

These  roots  are  also  indispensable  to  the  plant  in 
collecting  food  and  moisture  from  the  earth.  In  dry 
seasons  they  must  penetrate  deeper  into  the  moist 
earth  for  the  dampness  that  lies  far  below  the  surface. 
The  frequent  cultivation  of  the  soil,  by  keeping  a 
light  cover  of  loose  earth  on  the  surface,  prevents 
moisture  from  escaping  from  the  soil. 

The  growth  of  the  corn  plant  from  the  germination 
of  the  seed  to  the  full  ripening  of  the  ear  is  one  of 
the  most  instructive  lessons  in  botany.  It  requires  a 
rich  soil  and  a  warm,  even  sultry,  summer  heat  to 
give  the  best  growth.  The  grain  of  corn  is  well 
stored  with  the  starchy  food  that  gives  the  tiny 
plantlet  its  first  growing  nourishment  and  strength. 
The  rootlet  strikes  into  the  earth  and  soon  a  little 
pointed  blade  points  upward.  This  blade  is  tube-like 
and  as  it  shoots  upward  encloses  within  itself  the 
next  leaf,  and  this  in  turn  as  it  develops  encloses  a 


14$      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

third,  and  so  on.  The  sheath  of  each  leaf  remains 
wrapped  round  the  stalk,  strengthening  and  sup- 
porting it  so  that  the  leaf  in  this  way  not  only  pro- 
tects each  on-coming  tender  leaf,  but  continues  to 
strengthen  greatly  the  main  stalk  throughout  its  later 
growth.  Finally,  when  the  stalk  has  reached  its 
proper  height  a  cluster  of  tassels  rises  and  crowns 
the  whole. 

When  the  stalk  has  reached  its  full  size,  one  or  two 
large  ears  are  seen  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  about  its 
middle.  A  closer  examination  will  reveal  the  fact 
that  in  descending  the  stalk  from  the  large  ear  smaller 
ears  will  be  found,  one  in  the  axil  of  each  leaf,  in 
many  cases,  almost  to  the  ground.  The  farther  down 
the  stalk  we  go  the  more  rudimentary  is  the  ear,  but 
in  some  cases  three  or  four  well-matured  ears  may 
be  found.  This  has  raised  the  question  whether  by 
selection  and  cultivation  a  species  of  corn  could  be 
produced  which  would  yield  two  or  three  or  more 
strong  ears  on  each  stalk,  and  at  the  experiment 
stations  some  tests  have  been  made.  Possibly  the 
yield  per  acre  could  thus  be  largely  increased. 

The  growth  of  the  stalk  reveals  other  very  inter- 
esting processes  in  the  plant.  In  order  to  produce  a 
very  rapid  growth  in  a  short  season  the  corn  does  not 
confine  its  growth  to  the  upper  extremity  as  in  trees 
and  some  other  plants.  But  each  internode  has  a 
region  of  growth  so  that  if  a  corn  plant  has  ten  joints 
it  is  lengthening  itself  at  ten  places  at  the  same  time. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  149 

Just  above  each  node  is  a  green,  fresh,  growing  part 
of  the  stalk  where  this  growth  takes  place.  It  is 
interesting  also  to  note  that  this  is  the  part  of  the 
stalk  which  is  best  protected  by  the  strong  bottom 
part  of  the  sheath.  So  rapid  is  the  growth  of  the  corn 
plant  during  the  warm  weather  of  July  and  August 
that  plants  sometimes  attain  a  height  of  nearly  twenty 
feet,  and  whole  fields  sometimes  reach  an  average 
height  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  feet. 

In  spite  of  the  strong  anchorage  of  the  roots  in  the 
soil,  heavy  winds  sometimes  blow  down  the  corn, 
especially  when  rains  have  softened  the  earth  below. 
One  would  naturally  think  that  a  prostrate  corn  stalk 
would  be  in  a  hopeless  condition,  but  it  is  often 
observed  that  in  a  day  or  two  the  fallen  stalks  have 
raised  their  heads  and  are  making  a  tolerable  effort 
to  right  themselves.  The  manner  in  which  this  is 
accomplished  is  one  of  the  most  curious  adaptations 
in  the  life  of  the  corn  plant.  It  may  be  observed  that 
on  the  under  side  of  the  prostrate  stalk,  and  just 
above  the  node,  the  lower  part  of  the  sheath  has 
thickened  and  solidified  and  has  thus  given  an  upward 
bend  to  the  stalk  at  this  point.  When  this  is  done  at 
several  nodes,  the  upper  part  of  the  stalk  is  found  to 
stand  erect  and  proceeds  to  develop  in  the  normal 
manner. 

The  leaves  of  the  corn  also  have  an  interesting 
way  of  adapting  themselves  to  dry  weather.  The 
amount  of  moisture  drawn  from  the  earth  by  the 


I5O      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

corn  plant  is  very  great,  but  in  dry  weather  it  is 
necessary  to  put  up  with  a  much  smaller  amount. 
As  the  leaves  spread  their  broad  surface  to  the  sun, 
they  send  into  the  air  a  great  amount  of  moisture 
drawn  from  the  earth.  In  dry  weather,  in  order  to 
check  the  amount  of  this  evaporation,  the  edges  of 
the  leaves  roll  up  together  and  form  a  sort  of  tube,  so 
that  there  is  much  less  exposure  of  the  green  surface 
to  the  sun  and  air.  When  rainy  weather  comes  again 
they  once  more  spread  their  broad,  flat  surface  to  the 
sun  and  atmosphere.  In  this  way  the  growing  plant 
is  able  to  adapt  itself  to  great  differences  in  weather 
and  still  carry  on  its  work  of  growth  and  ripening  its 
ears. 

The  effect  of  the  cultivation  of  corn  among  the 
Indians,  and  later  among  the  white  races,  has  been  to 
give  a  variety  of  kinds,  such  as  field  corn  of  several 
sorts  and  colors,  sweet  corn  for  gardens,  and  pop- 
corn. By  cultivation,  kinds  have  been  produced 
which  show  a  quick  growth  in  the  warm  summers 
in  lands  as  far  north  as  Minnesota  and  Canada. 
Originally  a  tropical  plant  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  it  has  been  made  to  mature  its  valuable 
harvest  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States. 

The  cultivation  of  corn  among  the  Indians  and 
pioneer  white  settlers  was  of  great  importance. 
Those  nations  in  Mexico  which  were  most  success- 
ful in  the  regular  cultivation  of  corn  were  the  most 
advanced  of  the  Indian  races.  The  Indian  races 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  15 1 

which  occupied  the  temperate  parts  of  North  Amer- 
ica cultivated  corn  in  a  very  rude  way.  The  early 
settlers  along  the  Atlantic  coast  found  it  of  great 
value,  much  better  adapted  to  their  first  clearings 
in  the  forest  than  wheat  and  other  cereals.  Maize 
is  a  much  easier  crop  to  raise,  harvest,  and  convert 
into  food  than  wheat  and  other  grain.  Its  product 
to  the  acre  is  much  greater.  In  pioneer  days,  there- 
fore, the  parched  corn  and  meal,  the  succotash,  hasty 
pudding,  hominy,  and  pone  cake  enabled  the  people 
to  extend  their  settlements  and  take  possession  of 
the  country  in  a  way  that  dependence  upon  wheat 
and  rye  and  oats  would  not  have  allowed.  When 
Robertson  first  visited  the  valley  of  East  Tennessee, 
he  raised  the  first  summer  a  field  of  corn,  and  then 
returned  to  North  Carolina  to  get  his  family  and  lead 
out  a  settlement.  A  similar  dependence  of  the  early 
settlers  upon  corn  is  shown  in  many  ways. 

The  present  uses  of  corn  are  so  important  and 
varied  that  their  examination  is  of  curious  interest. 
Besides  its  uses  in  corn  bread,  as  roasting  ears,  in 
canned  product,  in  hasty  pudding  and  other  common 
dishes,  it  is  the  chief  source  of  starch,  glucose, 
whiskey,  and  alcohol. 

In  the  fattening  of  farm  stock  for  the  market  it  is 
the  chief  cereaL  and  for  this  purpose  the  fodder  or 
stover  is  becoming  almost  as  important  as  the  grain. 
The  use  of  the  green  or  partly  ripened  corn  plants 
for  filling  silos,  after  it  has  been  chopped  up  into 


I $2      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

small  bits,  has  become  of  great  importance.  A 
slight  fermentation  takes  place  and  makes  the  silage 
a  very  rich  food  for  dairy  cows  and  other  farm 
stock. 

There  are  many  other  less  important  uses  to  which 
parts  of  the  corn  plant  are  put,  as  the  stalk  and  husks 
for  paper,  mattresses,  fibre,  packing  material,  oil,  and 
even  fuel. 

Not  a  little  of  the  best  ingenuity  of  the  American 
people  has  been  expended  in  inventing  machines  and 
processes  for  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting,  and 
utilizing  the  product  of  the  corn-fields.  The  result  of 
this  ingenuity  would  give  us  at  least  the  following 
list :  ploughs,  corn-planters,  cultivators,  corn-cutters 
and  huskers,  corn-shellers,  silage  choppers,  machines 
for  milling  corn,  distilleries,  canneries,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  various  devices  of  cookery  for  putting  the  corn 
plant  into  palatable  forms.  The  treatment  of  corn 
in  its  various  important  phases  is  one  of  the  best 
illustrations  of  the  manifold  applications  of  science 
to  practical  affairs. 

The  corn  plant  botanically  considered  is  an  im- 
portant member  of  the  grass  family.  It  has  a  num- 
ber of  striking  points  of  resemblance  to  the  cereals, 
as  wheat,  oats,  rye,  and  barley.  The  jointed  hollow 
stem,  the  leaf  and  sheath,  the  terminal  flower,  the 
roots  and  general  structure  of  the  plant,  the  annual 
growth  and  the  close  retention  of  the  seed  instead  of 
scattering  to  the  wind,  are  identical  in  corn  and  the 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  153 

other  cereals.  There  is  also  a  strong  similarity  of  the 
food  store  in  all  these  cereals. 

The  corn  differs  from  all  the  other  cereals  in  its 
great  size  and  in  the  fact  that  it  separates  widely  its 
staminate  and  pistillate  blossoms,  providing  thus  for 
a  cross-pollination  much  greater  than  in  the  others. 

But  this  whole  group  of  cereals  .has  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  the  field  and  wild  grasses.  The  chief 
point  of  contrast  is  that  the  wild  grasses  provide 
some  mode  of  scattering  their  seed  and  thus  securing 
a  new  growth  from  season  to  season.  Their  seeds  are 
also  smaller  and  are  more  easily  carried  by  the  winds. 

It  looks  as  if  the  cultivated  cereals  had  somehow 
lost  this  power  of  providing  for  their  offspring  and 
had  transferred  it  to  man.  In  fact,  man  finds  suffi- 
cient value  in  the  seeds  to  provide  for  their  preserva- 
tion, sowing,  and  culture.  It  is  even  claimed  that  the 
cereals  have  gradually  developed  their  present  state 
of  perfection  as  man  has  developed,  and  that  their 
progress  has  largely  conditioned  his. 

Method  in  treating  the  Corn  Plant 

The  corn  plant  may  be  studied  by  the  children  at 
different  times  in  the  grades.  A  few  of  the  chief 
opportunities  for  this  study  may  be  outlined  as 
follows :  — 

i.  The  planting  and  germination  of  the  corn  in 
boxes  in  the  window.  Done  probably  in  the  second 
or  third  grade  in  early  spring. 


154      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

2.  The  planting  and  cultivation  of  the  corn  in  the 
school  or  home  garden.      Watching  its  growth  and 
changes  through  the  seasons,  including  roasting  ears 
of  sweet  corn  and  final  ripening  in  the  fall. 

3.  The  close  examination  of  the  full-grown  corn  in 
September  in  the  school  garden.     Large,  full  stalks 
are  also  brought  into  the  schoolroom  for  study.     A 
visit  to  the  corn-field  in  September  to  note  the  con- 
ditions of  growth,  pollination,  etc.     This  is  the  chief 
period  of  study  of  the  corn  in  fourth  or  fifth  grade. 

4.  Collection  of  other  cereal  plants  and  somewhat 
close  comparison  with  the  corn  of  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
oats,  and  rice.     This  can  best  be  done  perhaps  in 
late  spring  just  before  the  close  of  school  in  June,  in 
fifth  or  sixth  grade. 

5.  Collection   of    the    full-sized    corn    plants,    of 
grasses,  as  timothy,  blue  grass,  and  other  wild  grasses, 
for  comparison  with  the  corn  and  other  cereals.     This 
can  be  done  both  in  June  and  in  September  in  con- 
nection with  the  studies  previously  mentioned.      It 
is  well  also  to  compare  the  seeds  of  the  grasses  with 
those  of  the  cereals. 

6.  The  uses  of  corn  in  connection  with  feeding  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  hogs,  chickens  and  other  fowls,  on 
the  farm  may  be  noticed  in  connection  with  the  pre- 
vious topics.     The  silo  on  a  farm  is  an  interesting 
study.     Other  farm  studies  in  geography  and  science 
also  treat  these  topics. 

7.  The  visit  to  an  agricultural  implement  store  to 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  1 55 

notice  definitely  the  kinds  of  machinery  used  in  con- 
nection with  corn  production  and  use  will  be  worth 
the  trouble.  Still  better  is  it  to  observe  the  uses  of 
these  machines  in  the  fields  and  barns. 

8.  The   preparation   and   uses   of   corn   and  meal 
in  the  kitchen,  test  for  starch,  food  value  of  corn, 
making  corn  bread,  hominy,  succotash,  mush,  roast- 
ing ears,   etc. ;  these   topics   can  be  worked  out  in 
connection  with   the  various  lessons  in   cooking   in 
sixth  and  seventh  grades. 

9.  The  importance  of  corn  in  the  agriculture  and 
commerce  of  the  United  States  is  clearly  brought  out 
in  the  geography  lessons  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades. 

10.  The  story  of  Mondamin,  the  corn  plant,  and 
the  legends  of  the  Indians  regarding  it  are  given  in  a 
classic  form  in  " Hiawatha,"  and  this  poem  is  now  often 
read  by  the  children  in  the  fifth  grade,  and  used  in 
the  story  form  in  the  second  grade.    Whittier's  "  Corn- 
Song,"  and  "The  Huskers,"  and  other  illustrations  of 
the  topic  in  literature  are  familiar. 

11.  The  Pioneer  history  stories  have  a  great  many 
illustrations  of  the  use  of  corn  among  the  Indians 
and  early  settlers.     Corn  was,  in  fact,  an  important 
part  of  the  Indian  and  pioneer  environment. 

12.  In  the  cultivation  of  corn  in  the  garden  and  in 
the  cooking  experiments  in  the  kitchen  the  manual 
skill  of  the  pupils  in  using  tools,  working  in  the  soil, 
and  in  the  more  exact  following  of  recipes  is  quite  as 
valuable  as  the  work  of  the  shop. 


156      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

That  children  in  the  natural  course  of  their  school- 
ing run  across  the  various  aspects  and  relations  of 
corn  to  the  different  studies,  is  evident.  The  connec- 
tions between  different  branches  of  knowledge  are  so 
easy  and  natural  that  they  are  worked  out  incidentally 
without  waste  of  time.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  a  commonplace,  but  really  important,  topic  like 
this  ramifies  more  or  less  into  all  studies. 

The  Skin 

"Science  Lesson  for  Fourth  Grade."    By  Fred  L.  Charles. 

We  are  now  to  study  something  that  stands  between 
us  and  the  outside  world ;  something  that  is  of  very 
great  importance  to  our  comfort  and  our  welfare. 
What  do  we  call  the  covering  of  the  body  ?  The 
skin.  Evidently  it  is  of  what  service  ?  It  protects 
the  tender  portions  beneath ;  gives  smooth  outline 
and  surface  to  the  body.  Is  it  of  uniform  thickness  ? 
Where  thickest  ?  On  the  palms  and  soles.  What 
else  protects  certain  parts  of  the  body  ?  The  hair ; 
the  nails. 

Name  all  the  characteristics  you  can  of  the  skin. 
It  is  soft,  smooth,  "flesh-colored,"  elastic  —  always 
fits  the  body  tightly,  although  constantly  subject  to 
stretching  and  to  pressure  ;  can  be  grown  again  when 
cut  or  injured ;  is  sensitive  to  touch  and  to  heat  and 
cold. 

Did  you  ever  have  on  your  hands  —  due  to  hard 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  1 57 

work  or  to  a  burn  —  a  blister  filled  with  a  watery 
liquid,  making  the  skin  puff  out  like  a  little  bag  ? 
Did  this  puffed-out  skin  finally  come  off?  Was  it 
sensitive?  If  you  were  careful  in  removing  it,  did 
blood  flow  ?  Was  there  a  permanent  scar  ?  What 
was  the  nature  of  the  skin  beneath  the  blister  ?  Its 
color  ?  Was  it  sensitive  ?  Did  it  contain  blood  ? 
As  the  blister  healed,  where  did  the  new  skin  come 
from  ?  There  are  really  two  skins,  the  outer,  scarf 
skin,  cuticle,  or  epidermis ;  and  the  inner,  true  skin, 
or  dermis.  The  blister  was  between  the  two.  The 
outer  skin,  as  you  saw,  has  no  blood  and  no  nerves, — 
you  can  run  a  pin  through  it  without  pain,  —  but 
the  nerves  of  the  inner  skin  can  feel  through  the 
epidermis.  The  thicker  epidermis  of  the  palms  and 
soles  affords  the  greater  protection  needed  at  those 
places.  Where  the  skin  turns  in  to  line  a  passage 
such  as  the  nostril  or  the  mouth,  it  becomes  "mucous 
membrane." 

Does  the  scarf  skin  grow  ?  How  do  you  know  ? 
It  is  constantly  wearing  off  on  the  surface,  as  seen 
when  rubbing  with  a  coarse  towel  after  a  hot  bath. 
Necessity  of  bathing  to  remove  these  dead  scales. 
Dandruff  is  the  dead  outer  skin  of  the  scalp.  How 
must  the  cuticle  be  replaced  ?  By  the  growth  of  the 
deeper  layers.  The  coloring  matter  of  the  skin 
(blond,  brunette,  black  in  negro,  copper  in  Indian, 
etc.)  is  located  in  the  deeper  layers  of  the  outer  skin. 
(Blisters  are  sometimes  formed  between  two  layers 


I$8       SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

of  the  epidermis  instead  of  between  the  dermis  and 
the  epidermis.) 

The  inner,  true  skin,  or  dermis,  is  richly  supplied 
with  muscle  fibres,  blood-vessels,  and  nerves.  There 
are  also  little  tubes  which  lead  up  through  the  cuticle 
and  open  on  the  surface.  On  your  palm  you  see 
several  coarse  lines,  but  all  over  its  surface  you  find 
fine  ridges ;  all  along  the  ridges  are  the  openings 
(pores)  from  these  tubes.  If  you  know  how  to  use  a 
magnifying-glass,  you  can  see  the  pores  distinctly. 
Do  you  know  what  comes  through  these  pores  ?  Per- 
spiration —  sweat.  Try  this  experiment :  Place  your 
hand  inside  a  cold  glass  fruit  jar ;  after  a  few  moments, 
what  do  you  notice  ?  What  happened  ?  Sweat  is  be- 
ing given  off  all  the  time,  —  more  than  a  pint  daily, 
—  usually  drying  as  fast  as  it  reaches  the  surface. 
Under  what  circumstances  is  it  given  off  most  freely  ? 
In  warm  weather ;  when  dressed  too  warmly ;  after 
exercise  ;  after  drinking  freely ;  after  taking  certain 
medicines.  The  sweat  pores  are  found  all  over  the 
body;  from  400  to  2500  per  square  inch;  a  total  of 
nearly  3,000,000 ;  most  numerous  on  the  palms. 

Of  what  use  are  the  sweat  glands  ?  When  the  body 
is  overheated,  the  evaporating  perspiration  carries 
away  some  of  the  body's  heat,  helping  to  keep  its 
temperature  nearly  uniform,  or  constant ;  fanning 
brings  fresh  air  to  take  up  more  moisture  from  the 
body  and  thus  carry  away  more  heat.  To  sit,  when 
heated,  in  a  draught  of  air  may  result  in  closing  the 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  1 59 

pores,  producing  a  cold.  What  other  service  does 
the  perspiration  perform  ?  The  sweat  glands  take 
from  the  blood  a  great  quantity  of  worn-out  particles 
and  waste  matter,  carrying  it  to  the  surface.  This 
service  makes  the  skin  a  very  important  workman  of 
the  body.  Knowing  these  facts,  we  can  better  under- 
stand the  necessity  of  bathing  to  keep  the  pores 
open,  to  remove  foreign  matter  (dirt)  and  also  the  ref- 
use (sewage)  left  by  the  perspiration  when  it  evapo- 
rates. Why  is  it  best  to  change  the  underclothing 
frequently  ?  How  does  the  skin  suffer  from  our  over- 
eating? It  has  too  much  work  to  do  in  removing 
waste  matter. 

The  skin  has  also  oil  glands,  which  open  along  the 
hairs,  oiling  them  and  keeping  the  skin  soft.  Stop- 
page of  these  openings  produces  pimples  or  even 
boils.  Here  is  an  added  necessity  for  cleanliness. 

Frogs  and  earthworms  breathe  largely  through 
their  skin;  they  suffer  and  die  if  it  becomes  dry. 
We,  too,  may  breathe,  though  but  very  slightly, 
through  the  skin,  which  cooperates  with  the  lungs  in 
taking  in  air  (oxygen)  and  giving  off  waste.  The 
skin  may  also  absorb  substances  rubbed  upon  it ; 
for  example,  liniment.  Necessity  for  keeping  the 
surface  clean  and  healthy ;  frequent  bathing  and 
change  of  clothing  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  waste 
or  poisonous  matters. 

What  change  do  you  notice  in  the  skin  when  you 
enter  a  very  warm  room,  or  when  you  exercise  vigor- 


I6O      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

ously?  It  becomes  "flushed"  —  filled  with  blood. 
Of  what  advantage  is  this  ?  It  regulates  the  body's 
temperature.  We  saw  how  heat  is  carried  away  by 
perspiration  ;  it  is  also  lost  directly  from  the  blood  as 
the  warm  current  passes  through  the  flushed  skin. 
What  change  when  you  go  into  the  cold  ?  The  skin 
becomes  white ;  heat  is  then  retained  by  the  with- 
drawal of  blood  from  the  surface  (by  constriction  of 
the  blood-vessels  in  the  skin).  Exercise  speeds  the 
circulation ;  shivering  is  an  involuntary  exercise  — 
what  an  interesting  provision  ! 

Functions  of  the  skin,  summarized:  (^protec- 
tion ;  (2)  sensation  ;  (3)  excretion  —  purifying  blood  ; 
(4)  heat  regulation;  (5)  absorption  of  oxygen  and 
ointments. 

This  study  of  the  skin  may  well  be  followed  by  a 
discussion  of  the  growth  and  care  of  the  hair  and  the 
nails,  and  of  the  hygiene  of  bathing. 

Experimental  Study  of  Water  in  the  Plant 

"Eighth  Grade."    By  Fred  L.  Charles. 

(This  study,  as  all  other  experimentation  in  the 
grades,  should  be  introduced  as  a  means  for  solving 
a  problem  which  has  arisen.  If  possible,  it  should  be 
the  pupil's  means  of  solution,  suggested  by  him.  It 
is  assumed  that  the  work  here  outlined  shall  be  given 
such  a  setting.  Suitable  occasion  for  its  introduction 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  l6l 

may  be  found  in  connection  with  the  topic  of  autumn 
coloration,  the  care  of  house  plants,  the  conservation 
of  soil  moisture  in  the  garden  or  field,  or  in  a  study 
of  developing  seedlings.  The  work  may  be  adapted 
to  any  grade  above  the  fourth.) 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  care  given  to  house 
plants.  They  insist  that  their  relations  to  soil,  light, 
temperature,  and  moisture  be  properly  adjusted. 
Their  most  frequent  demand  upon  us  is  for  water. 
"  Be  sure  to  water  the  plants  ! "  is  the  last  injunction 
of  the  thrifty  housekeeper  when  departing  from  home. 
Outdoor  plants  need  the  same  conditions  and,  though 
more  hardy,  they  thrive  or  suffer  according  to  the 
frequency  and  amount  of  rainfall.  We  will  investigate 
the  ways  and  means  and  uses  of  this  water  supply  as 
they  are  evidenced  by  the  structure  and  (especially) 
the  activities  of  the  plant. 

A  wilted  plant  revives  when  watered.  Evidently 
the  water  can  get  from  the  soil  into  the  body  of  the 
plant  only  through  the  root  system.  Water  can  be 
absorbed  only  by  the  young  and  tender  portions  of 
the  root.  What  is  the  mechanism  ?  Looking  at  a 
young  plantlet  of  radish  or  corn  (grown  in  moist 
chamber  on  damp  blotting-paper  or  cotton),  we  dis- 
cover numberless  fuzzy  outgrowths  (root  hairs)  on  the 
roots  of  the  seedling.  The  root  hairs  increase  enor- 
mously the  absorbing  surface ;  wrapping  closely  about 
the  soil  particles  they  lay  claim  to  the  enveloping 


1 62      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

moisture  and  to  the  mineral  (food)  substances  dis- 
solved therein.  The  root  hairs  are  easily  seen  with 
the  naked  eye,  or,  better,  by  the  aid  of  any  form  of 
magnifying  glass  or  microscope.  (Understand  that 
root  hairs  are  not  so  abundant  in  soil-grown  roots.) 

How  active  is  the  root  in  taking  up  moisture  from 
the  soil  ?  Let  us  answer  this  question  by  experiment. 
From  a  potted  begonia  plant  cut  the  stem  with  a 
sharp  knife,  about  two  inches  above  the  soil.  Keep 
the  cut  surface  moist.  By  means  of  a  short  piece  of 
rubber  tubing  attach  to  the  stem  a  piece  of  glass  tub- 
ing, supported  by  a  rod.  Water  the  plant  as  usual. 
The  glass  tubing  shows  the  rise  of  "sap"  ;  mark  the 
height  of  the  liquid  at  intervals.  The  upward  force 
of  this  liquid,  rising  from  the  roots  against  gravity, 
is  known  as  root  pressure.  It  may  be  demonstrated 
in  the  garden,  using  a  dahlia  or  tomato  plant  or  a 
young  sapling.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  root  system 
of  a  plant  constitutes  a  channel  for  the  escape  of 
water  from  the  soil. 

What  is  the  explanation  of  this  root  pressure? 
What  agencies  are  at  work  ?  We  can  partially  an- 
swer this  query,  although  we  must  remember  that 
where  a  living  thing  is  at  work,  there  is  a  much  more 
complicated  situation  than  exists  in  lifeless  apparatus. 
Close  the  tube  end  of  a  "thistle  tube"  and  pour  salt 
in  until  the  bowl  is  nearly  filled.  Over  the  mouth 
stretch  and  tie  firmly  a  piece  of  parchment  or  bladder 
skin.  Place  the  thistle  tube,  bowl  down,  in  a  tumbler 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS  163 

of  water.  Very  soon  we  notice  that  the  liquid  is 
rising  in  the  tube.  This  intermingling  of  two  liquids 
of  different  density,  through  a  membrane,  is  called 
osmosis.  After  some  time  it  may  be  determined  that 
the  water  in  the  tumbler  is  somewhat  salty.  The 
"thinner"  fluid  had  less  difficulty  in  getting  through 
the  membrane,  hence  the  diffusion  current  was  much 
greater  (at  first)  toward  the  dense  solution.  This 
throws  much  light  upon  the  question  of  how  the  soil 
moisture  enters  the  root  hairs.  The  living  substance 
(protoplasm)  of  the  cells  is  the  membrane,  and  water 
enters,  while  very  little  sap  goes  out.  In  different 
plants  growing  side  by  side,  fed  by  the  same  soil 
moisture,  we  find  that  the  roots  select  out  different 
percentages  of  various  mineral  foods,  evidently  in 
accordance  with  their  needs.  To  illustrate,  the  hard 
stalks  of  stubble  in  the  grain  field  have  been  fur- 
nished more  quartz  (silica)  than  have  the  clover 
stems  growing  alongside. 

Let  us  illustrate  osmosis  in  a  different  way.  With 
sealing-wax  cement  a  glass  tube  to  the  small  end  of 
an  egg,  and  then  pierce  the  shell  and  membrane  by 
means  of  a  long  needle  or  wire  run  through  the  tube. 
Without  injury  to  the  lining  membrane,  break  away 
the  shell  from  the  large  end  of  the  egg,  over  a  sur- 
face about  as  large  as  a  dime.  Support  the  large  end 
of  the  egg  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  of  water,  and 
await  results.  A  liquid  appears  in  the  tube  and  rises 
to  a  considerable  height.  Evidently  osmosis  is  going 


1 64      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

on,  through  the  membrane,  between  the  egg  contents 
and  the  water ;  the  more  rapid  movement  is  into  the 
egg.  After  a  while  you  may  discover  a  change  in  the 
water  in  the  bottle.  In  some  similar  way  the  soil 
moisture  enters  the  root  system,  and  is  raised 
through  the  stem  (in  considerable  measure)  by  osmo- 
sis from  cell  to  cell. 

Slices  of  raw  beet  put  into  a  strong  solution  of  salt 
water  become  limp ;  why  ?  Water  moves  from  the 
beet  into  the  denser  salt  solution;  the  cells  "wilt." 
Placing  the  wilted  beet  slices  into  fresh  water  re- 
vives them ;  the  greater  current  now  is  from  the 
fresh  water  into  the  beet,  which  becomes  turgid 
again.  The  cell  is  much  like  a  cloth  bag  and  must 
be  filled  before  it  can  stand  erect.  So  leaves  wilt 
when  deprived  of  needed  water. 

Does  the  root  act  alone  in  pumping  water  from  the 
ground?  Does  any  other  organ  of  the  plant  coop- 
erate ?  Let  the  leaf  answer  for  itself.  Place  a  leafy 
stem  of  wild  black  cherry  or  a  detached  leaf  of  a 
plantain  weed  in  red  ink  (eosin);  the  colored  fluid 
ascends  rapidly  —  at  different  rates  in  different 
plants  —  and  by  channels  easily  demonstrated  in 
some  forms,  as  in  the  plantain.  In  preparing  mate- 
rial to  illustrate  the  ascent  of  sap,  cut  the  stem  under 
water.  By  using  different  plants  you  will  discover 
interesting  differences  in  rapidity  of  ascent  and  in 
the  character  of  the  passageways.  Try  the  stem 
and  blossom  of  the  mandrake. 


ILLUSTRATIVE   LESSONS 

What  becomes  of  the  moisture  that  reaches  the  leaf 
through  the  stem  ?  How  shall  we  solve  this  ques- 
tion ?  Pass  the  petiole  of  a  leaf  through  a  cardboard 
by  means  of  a  hole  just  large  enough  to  admit  it ; 
immerse  the  freshly  cut  end  of  the  petiole  in  a  tum- 
bler of  water,  and  invert  over  the  leaf  (and  cardboard) 
another  tumbler.  What  happens  ?  The  leaf  does  not 
retain  all  of  the  moisture  it  receives,  but  gives  off 
a  great  amount  into  the  air.  An  acre  of  grass  gives 
off  several  tons  of  water  per  day ;  sap  must  rise  to 
replace  the  water  lost ;  hence  there  must  be  an 
enormous  upward  flow  of  water  through  the  plant 
every  day. 

How  does  the  water  escape  from  the  leaf  ?  From 
the  lower  surface  of  a  leaf  of  lily-of-the-valley,  or  of 
wandering  Jew,  obtain  a  small  strip  of  the  thin, 
transparent  epidermis.  Mount  it  in  water  under  a 
microscope.  The  little  structures  resembling  apple 
seeds  distributed  among  the  epidermal  cells  are  the 
"  stomates,"  or  breathing  pores,  through  which  water 
vapor  escapes  from  the  leaf  and  through  which  air 
enters.  You  will  find  it  interesting  to  read  about 
stomates  in  any  good  general  botany.  Do  you  dis- 
cover the  two  guard  cells,  or  lips,  which  guard  each 
stomate  and  regulate  the  amount  of  water  given  off  ? 

This  activity  of  the  plant  in  thus  passing  an 
immense  amount  of  water  daily  through  its  body 
must  signify  something  of  great  importance.  The 
object  is,  in  large  part,  to  keep  the  plant  turgid  and 


1 66      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

erect ;  but  the  main  purpose  is  to  obtain  the  food 
which  is  in  solution  in  the  water.  Large  quantities 
of  the  weak  solution  must  be  disposed  of  in  order  to. 
obtain  only  a  small  amount  of  food. 

Helpful  suggestions  will  be  found  in  the  following 
books  :  Bailey's  "  Foundations  of  Botany "  ;  Mac- 
dougal's  '''Experimental  Plant  Physiology";  Ker- 
ner  and  Oliver's  "Natural  History  of  Plants"; 
Coulter's  "Plant  Studies." 

The  considerations  herein  presented  open  up  many 
related  topics,  such  as  the  relation  of  forests  to  rain- 
fall, the  flow  of  sap,  food  storage  in  plants,  etc. 

As  a  last  injunction,  let  it  be  the  constant  care  of 
the  teacher  that  the  problems,  the  means  of  solution, 
and  the  mechanical  work  be  so  far  as  possible  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupils. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY 

.THE  Course  of  Study  in  Elementary  Science  laid 
out  in  the  following  chapter  may  be  regarded  as  the 
backbone  of  the  present  book.  In  this  course  of 
study  all  the  chapters  of  the  book  should  focus. 
They  should  all  contribute  directly  to  the  realization 
of  the  plan  there  worked  out. 

We  believe  that  a  point  has  been  reached  where  a 
definitely  arranged  course  of  study  for  the  grades  is 
demanded,  and  that  the  controlling  points  of  view 
from  which  such  a  course  can  be  rationally  made  out 
may  be  plainly  demonstrated. 

Assuming  this  conclusion  to  be  correct,  we  may 
first  ask  ourselves  the  advantages  which  may  flow 
from  such  a  series  of  topics  for  a  course  of  study  as 
can  now  be  made. 

First.  Such  a  course  picks  out  a  few  centres  where 
the  efforts  of  teachers  and  pupils  may  be  concen- 
trated. In  view  of  the  countless  multitude  and  variety 
of  nature-study  topics,  even  a  moderate  degree  of 
success  in  selecting  would  be  a  great  unburdening. 
A  course  of  study  which  will  give  us  the  typical  and 
essential  in  the  vast  field  will  be  a  priceless  economy. 

167 


1 68      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Second.  The  individual  teachers  should  be  relieved 
of  the  burden  of  selecting  and  arranging  such  a 
course.  To  leave  this  heavy  problem  in  the  hands 
of  young  and  inexperienced  teachers  is  worse  than 
folly.  There  are,  in  fact,  very  few  old  and  seasoned 
superintendents  who  would  not  hesitate  to  lay  out  a 
definite  course  of  study  in  elementary  science.  Yet 
their  experience  and  qualifications  for  such  a  task 
must  be  twenty  times  that  of  the  average  grade 
teacher.  Evidently  such  a  course  should  be  made 
out  for  the  whole  elementary  school,  not  in  eight 
unconnected  fragments  by  eight  people  of  different 
ideas.  A  wise  superintendent  will  get  together  the 
best  of  his  teachers  and  experts  in  nature  study,  and 
by  mutual  cooperation  work  out  this  problem.  But 
we  greatly  need  a  much  better  course  of  study  than 
has  yet  been  worked  out  in  this  way.  That  the 
average  grade  teacher  is  wholly  unqualified  for  this 
great  task  and  should  not  be  burdened  with  it  ought 
to  be  frankly  admitted. 

Third.  When  a  fairly  good  course  of  study  (prop- 
erly arranged  through  the  grades  with  its  great  series 
of  well-established  centres)  has  been  marked  out,  the 
rich  and  appropriate  knowledge  may  be  collected 
which  is  able  to  make  these  topics  fruitful  and  profit- 
able to  children.  This  collecting  of  choice  knowledge 
is  a  nice  problem,  requiring  no  small  degree  of  scien- 
tific skill  and  pedagogical  experience.  To  enrich 
these  central  topics  with  concrete  knowledge  ap- 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  169 

propriate  to  children  is  undoubtedly  the  work  of 
specialists. 

To  expect  the  average  teacher  to  hunt  up  and 
bring  together  this  fine  assortment  of  knowledge 
and  material  is  pure  hallucination.  An  enthusiastic 
teacher  of  large  experience,  by  overwork,  or  by 
neglecting  other  important  things  may  accomplish 
this  task  for  a  single  grade,  but  it  is  wholly  unreason- 
able to  expect  it  or  to  require  it  of  anybody. 

It  is  the  business  of  specialists  to  select  and  organ- 
ize this  choice  material  of  instruction  and  to  put  it 
into  the  handiest  form  for  the  teacher's  immediate 
use.  To  master,  assimilate,  and  skilfully  use  this 
gathered  material  in  classes  is  the  special  task  of  the 
grade  teacher,  and  this  requires  a  full  measure  of 
labor,  originality,  and  skill. 

Already  a  goodly  number  of  important  topics  have 
been  worked  over  in  this  way  by  specialists,  and  the 
suitable  material  brought  into  convenient  form  for 
the  grade  teacher.  Enough,  therefore,  has  been 
accomplished  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility  of  this 
plan.  The  poor  results  that  have  come  from  nature- 
study  lessons  have  been  due  largely  to  the  double 
burden  which  has  been  laid  upon  grade  teachers,  that 
of  first  collecting  and  working  up  the  knowledge  of 
these  topics  without  proper  helps,  and  that  of  the 
legitimate  work  of  skilful  ordering  and  instruc- 
tion. We  have  been  expecting  grade  teachers  to 
make  bricks  without  straw.  The  doctrine  of  division 


I7O      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

of  labor  applies  with  redoubled  force  to  this  branch 
of  instruction  in  its  present  condition. 

Fourth.  On  the  basis  of  the  two  points  just  named, 
it  is  possible  for  the  teacher  to  concentrate  her  la- 
bors upon  her  peculiar  task  ;  namely,  the  mastery  of 
this  well-assorted  material  for  the  purposes  of  skilful 
instruction,  in  short,  what  may  be  called  knowledge 
and  method.  The  principles  of  science  instruction 
have  been  well  worked  out  in  full  illustrations  of  the 
treatment  of  important  topics.  The  study  of  these 
illustrations  involves  no  slavish  imitation  of  others' 
methods  and  processes,  but  rather  a  rational  and  even 
critical  study  of  what  the  best  teachers  have  done. 
This  offers  to  every  teacher  a  profitable  field  for 
thoughtful  study,  rational  imitation  of  good  models, 
and  the  development  of  original  power  and  resource. 

Fifth.  A  well-arranged  series  of  topics  extending 
through  the  grades  makes  possible  an  orderly  devel- 
opment of  certain  coherent  lines  of  thought  from 
year  to  year.  Most  people  have  felt  the  inherent 
weakness  of  our  elementary  science  courses  when 
judged  from  this  fundamental  point  of  view.  Latin 
and  arithmetic,  for  example,  are  supposed  to  possess 
this  underlying  coherency  of  thought,  so  that  each 
later  year's  work  is  reenforced  and  strengthened  by 
the  earlier,  and  is,  in  fact,  dependent  upon  it.  The 
broad  sweep  and  variety  of  nature  studies  have  seemed 
to  obliterate  any  connected  plan  and  have  left  us  in 
the  confusion  of  a  multitude  of  details. 


THE    COURSE   OF   STUDY  I/ 1 

There  are,  however,  a  few  important  centres  of 
nature-study  work  whose  topics  recur  from  year  to 
year  in  continuous  development.  Such,  for  example, 
are  the  topics  connected  with  health  and  physiology, 
plant  life,  sanitation,  cooking,  gardening  and  agricul-  » 
ture,  applied  physics,  insect  life,  etc.  In  spite  of  the 
apparent  miscellaneous  character  of  its  topics  the 
great  body  of  science  lessons  consists  of  several 
strong  series  of  connected  topics  running  through  the 
grades.  No  study  can  be  strongly  educative  that  does 
not  thus  build  steadily  upon  previous  foundations. 
There  is  scarcely  a  lesson  in  the  middle  and  later 
grades  that  does  not  reach  back  into  two  or  more, 
often  many,  of  the  previous  lessons.  Good  teaching 
will  always  recall  these  previous  lessons  and  make 
use  of  them  in  building  up  an  enlarged  body  of  con- 
nected knowledge. 

A  well-arranged  course  of  study  enables  the  teacher 
in  any  of  the  later  grades  to  look  back  and  to  find  out 
the  previous  acquisitions  of  the  children,  to  review 
these  lessons  and  bring  them  into  proper  relation  to  ^A— 
the  later  studies.  This  review  and  focussing  of 
all  earlier  lessons  upon  later  ones  is  the  essence  of 
good  teaching.  Without  a  course  of  study  or  with  a 
poor  one  this  important  result  is  defeated. 

Sixth.  A  well-selected  course  of  study  in  element- 
ary science  makes  it  possible  for  the  teacher  in  any 
grade  to  concentrate  her  studies  upon  a  few  impor- 
tant topics  suited  to  that  grade,  so  as  to  become  well 


SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

equipped  for  teaching  them.  The  great  majority  of 
elementary  teachers  have  not  been  trained  for  teach- 
ing nature  study,  and  they  must  pick  up  the  essentials 
by  the  way.  If  the  sources  of  knowledge  are  made 
easily  available,  energetic  teachers  will  soon  acquire 
an  abundant  material  of  experience  and  information. 
But  it  must  be  of  the  right  sort  and  easily  at  hand. 

The  following  course  of  study  contains  probably  a 
larger  list  of  topics  than  can  be  worked  out  fully  in 
any  one  school,  and  will  have  to  be  modified  to  fit  the 
needs  of  any  particular  locality.  Every  school  will 
have  to  change  such  a  plan  to  meet  its  own  needs. 

Different  neighborhoods  (city  and  country  or  village 
life),  and  physical  and  climatic  conditions  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States,  are  so  widely  divergent 
that  a  definite  course  of  study  must  be  changed  and 
adapted  to  local  surroundings  and  needs. 

For  these  reasons  any  one  course  of  study  should 
be  suggestive  of  broad  and  common  lines  of  study,  and 
yet  as  definite  as  possible  in  specific,  typical  topics. 

OUTLINE  OF   NATURE  STUDY 

FALL  TERM.  —  FIRST  GRADE  x 

i.  Birds,  (a)  Note  the  coming  of  the  fall  and  winter 
birds  after  acquainting  the  children  with  them  through  the 
use  of  mounted  specimens  or  colored  pictures.  Good 

1  These  topics  need  not  be  taken  up  in  the  order  given  here.  The 
changes  in  nature  will  suggest  the  order. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  173 

colored  pictures  of  birds  can  be  obtained  from  the  Perry 
Pictures  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass.,  or  from  A.  W.  Mumford,  378 
Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago,  111.  Do  not  use  too  many  pictures. 
See  that  the  outdoor  observations  are  the  main  thing. 
Children  easily  deceive  themselves  and  describe  for  out- 
door observations  what  they  remember  of  the  pictures. 
In  northern  Illinois  the  children  will  look  for  the  nut- 
hatches, the  brown  creepers,  the  kinglets,  the  juncos,  and 
the  chickadees. 

(&)  Report  every  day  that  the  robin  and  blackbird  are 
seen.  They  will  probably  be  last  seen  in  October. 

(c)   What  other  birds  are  here? 

2.  flowers,    (a)    Learn  the  names  of  the  common  fall 
flowers  and  associate  with   each  a  few  striking  character- 
istics.    Press  a  good  specimen  of  each  variety  and  mount 
all   on  a  large  sheet 'of  cardboard,  writing  or  printing  by 
each  its  name  and  date.     Where  is  each  found  and  in  com- 
pany with  what  other  flowers  ?     (List  of  half-dozen.) 

(b)  Study  cinquefoil,  evening  primrose,  and  horsemint,  or 
other  common  flowers. 

(c)  Early  in  the  term  study  the  blossoms  and  plants  of 
nasturtium  and  Lima  bean.     Save  seeds  of  each  for  spring 
planting. 

3.  Trees,     (a)   Learn  to  recognize  trees  by  their  fruits 
and  by  their  leaves.     The  identification  is  associated  with 
gathering  the  beautiful  autumn  leaves  and  nuts. 

(b)  Press  some  of  the  leaves  and  mount  on  a  large  sheet 
of  cardboard,  placing  by  the  side  of  each  leaf  its  fruit  in  all 
cases  where  the  latter  can  be  obtained. 

(c)  Notice  the  galls  on  the  oak,  cottonwood,  willow,  and 
linden  trees.     Open  to  find  what  each  contains. 

4.  Vegetables.     Recognize  and  name  the  fall  vegetables. 
Model  in  clay. 


1/4      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

5.  Detailed  study  of  the  apple  and  the  peach.     Plant 
apple  seeds  and  peach  pits. 

6.  Domestic  animals.     Life  histories  of  the  cat  and  the 
dog. 

7.  Wild  animals.     Home  life  of  the  squirrel. 

8.  Insects.     Early  in  September  gather  a  few  grasshop- 
pers, locusts,  and  crickets.     Place  each  kind  in  a  glass  jar 
in  which  there  are  three  or   four   inches  of  soil.      Feed 
with  grass  and  bits  of  apple,  beet,  and  carrot.     Try  other 
articles  of  food.     See  that  they  are  fed  each  day.     Quite 
likely  some  of  them  will  lay  eggs  in  the  ground. 

Find  how  the  cricket's  chirp  is  made. 

9.  Weather  charts.      Each   month   rule  off  on  a  large 
sheet  of  cardboard  as  many  one  and  one-half  inch  squares 
as  there  are  days  in  a  month.     Make  seven  in  a  row,  one  for 
each  day  in  the  week.     On  a  bright  day  place  a  yellow  circle 
in  the  square  in  which  the  day's  weather  is  to  be  recorded. 
On  a  cloudy  day  use  a  gray  circle.     A  half  circle  of  yellow 
or  gray  indicates  the  kind  of  weather  for  a  half  day.     Special 
days,  e.g.  Washington's  birthday,  may  be  marked  by  some 
emblem  of  significance  of  the  day  placed  upon  the  circle. 

Make  summaries  at  the  end  of  each  week  of  the  number 
of  bright  days  and  the  number  of  dark  days  during  that 
week.  At  the  end  of  a  month  find  the  number  of  bright 
days  and  the  number  of  dark  days  in  the  month.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  compare  the  calendars  to  find  the  pleasant- 
est  month  and  the  darkest  month. 

HELPS 
i.  Migration  of  birds. 

Everyday  Birds  (Bradford  Torrey). 
How  to  Attract  Birds  (Neltje  Blanchan). 
First  Book  of  Birds  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 


THE   COURSE    OF   STUDY  175 

The  Foot-path  Way  (Bradford  Torrey). 
Bird  Life  (Frank  Chapman). 

2.  Helps  in  the  naming  and  study  of  flowers. 

Nature's  Garden  (Neltje  Blanchan). 

A  Guide  to  the  Wild  Flowers  (Alice  Lounsberry). 

Field  Book  of  American  Wild  Flowers  (F.  Schuyler 

Mathews). 

Familiar    Flowers   of  Field   and    Garden    (F.   Schuyler 
Mathews). 

According  to  Seasons  (Frances  Theodora  Parsons). 

Wild  Flowers  of  America  (Goodale). 

For  the  study  of  the  nasturtium,  see  — 

Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 

Flowers  and  their  Friends  (Margaret  Morley). 

A  Few  Familiar  Flowers  (Margaret  Morley). 
A  good  botany  will  help  in  the  study  of  both  the  nastur- 
tium and  the  bean. 

3.  Helps  in  the  study  of  the  trees. 

Our  Native  Trees  and  How  to  Identify  Them  (Harriet 

S.  Keeler). 

Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves  (F.  Schuyler  Mathews). 
Trees    of   the    Northern   United   States  (Austin    C. 

Apgar). 
See  chapter  on  "Galls"  in  Among   the  Moths  and 

Butterflies  (Julia  P.  Ballard). 

4.  Vegetables. 

Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 

5.  The  apple. 

For  appreciation  of  the  apple,  see  — 
The  Apple  (John  Burroughs). 
Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

6.  The  peach.     See — 

Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 


176      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

7.  The  cat. 

The  Cat  (R.  S.  Hinderkoper). 

Our  Home  Pets  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 

Schmeil,  Introduction  to  Zoology. 

8.  The  dog. 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  I  (Dr.  Lockwood). 

Our  Home  Pets  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 

Special  Method  in  Science  (McMurry). 

Domesticated  Animals  (N.  S.  Shaler). 

The  Play  of  Animals  (Karl  Groos). 

Training  of  a  Hunting  Dog,  Country  Life  in  America, 

November,  1903. 
Beautiful  Joe. 
Science  Reader,  Book  I. 
Lange's  Handbook  of  Nature  Study. 
Cats  and  Dogs  (James  Johonnot). 
Lives  of  the  Hunted  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton). 

9.  The  squirrel. 

Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers  (John  Burroughs). 

Lobo,  Rag,  and  Vixen  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton). 

Lessons  in  Science  (McMurry). 

Wild  Neighbors  (Ernest  Ingersoll). 

Winter  Sunshine  (John  Burroughs). 

Country  Cousins  (Ernest  Ingersoll). 

Life  of  Animals  (Mammals)  (Brehm) . 

10.  For  study  of  grasshoppers,  locusts,  and  crickets,  see  — 

Life  Histories  of  American  Insects  (Clarence  Moores 

Weed). 
Little   Folks    in   Feathers    and   Fur   (Olive  Thorne 

Miller). 

Zoology,  2  vols.  (Colton). 
Insect  Life  (John  Henry  Comstock). 
Needham's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology. 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  177 

WINTER  TERM.  —  FIRST  GRADE 

1.  Domestic  animals.     Study  of  the  cow,  the  horse,  and 
the  tame  rabbit. 

2.  Wild  animals.     Life  of  the  gray  rabbit,  comparing  it 
with  that  of  the  tame  rabbit. 

3.  Clothing  of  the  children,  connected  with  the  use,  and 
adaptability  to   use,   of  the   coats    of    animals   previously 
studied.     Kinds  and  uses  of  clothing.    Dangers  of  scanty  or 
wet  clothing. 

4.  Goldfish.     Uses   of  fins   and  tail  in   moving  about. 
How  they  eat.     How  they  breathe. 

5 .  Frost.     As  seen  in  its  effects,  e.g.  painting  of  the  win- 
dow panes,  breaking  of  pitchers  and  water-pipes. 

6.  Birds,     (a)  Have  a  care  for  the  winter   birds.     At- 
tract them  to  the  school  building  by  providing  meals  in  a 
certain  spot  every  day.     Hang  suet  in  trees  near  by. 

(3)  The  latter  part  of  the  term  look  for  the  return  of  the 
early  spring  birds.  In  northern  Illinois  they  are  the  robin, 
bluebird,  blackbird,  red-winged  blackbird,  meadow-lark,  and 
song-sparrow. 

7.  Plan  the  school  garden  and  get  seeds  of  Lima  bean 
and  nasturtium  ready  for  planting  in  boxes  in  the  house 
early  in  the  spring  term. 

8.  Trees,     (a)  Watch  for  pussy-willows  and  silver  maple 
blossoms,     (b)  Early  in  the  term  notice  the  large  buds  of 
some  tree,  e.g.  the  buckeye  or  hickory.     See  if  any  changes 
appear  in  these  buds  later  in  the  term. 

HELPS 
i.    (a)  The  cow. 

Cats  and  Dogs  (James  Johonnot). 

Davenport,  Leaflets  on  Agriculture  in  the  School  News. 


1/8      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(£)  The  horse. 

The  Horse  (Flower). 

Modern  Science  Series. 

Black  Beauty  (Sewell). 

Cats  and  Dogs  (James  Johonnot). 

2.  Gray  rabbit. 

Wild  Neighbors  (Ernest  Ingersoll). 
Animal  Memoirs,  Part  I  (Dr.  Lockwood). 
Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers  (John  Burroughs), 
Lobo,  Rag,  and  Vixen  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton). 
Science  Reader,  Book  2  (Vincent  T.  Murche"). 
Four-footed  Americans  (Mabel  Osgood  Wright). 

3.  Clothing. 

Science  Reader,  Book  5  (Vincent  T.  Murch£). 
Zoology,  2  vols.  (Colton). 

4.  Goldfish. 

5.  How  to  attract  the  birds. 

Everyday  Birds  (Bradford  Torrey). 

First  Book  of  Birds  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 

How  to  Attract  the  Birds  (Neltje  Blanchan). 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 

Birds  in  the  Bush  (Bradford  Torrey). 

The  Foot-path  Way  (Bradford  Torrey). 

Bird-dom  (Leander  Keyser). 

In  Bird  Land  (Leander  Keyser). 

Home  Studies  in  Nature  (Mary  Treat). 

The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 

Bird  Homes  (Dugmore).    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

6.  School  gardens. 

How  to  Make  School  Gardens  (Hemenway). 
Kindergarten  Review,  10  :  22. 
Garden  Making  (Bailey). 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  1 79 

7.   In  addition  to  the  books  already  mentioned  on  trees,  see  — 
Little  Wanderers  (Margaret  Morley),  for  study  of  the 

pussy-willow,  and 
Talks  Afield  (L.  H.  Bailey). 

Ten  New  England  Blossoms  (Clarence  MooresWeed). 
Seed  Travellers  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
Study  of  Trees  in  Winter  (Hutchinson). 
Flower  and  Fruit  (Jane  H.  Newell). 
Lessons  with  Plants  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
Our  Native  Shrubs  (Keeler). 

SPRING  TERM.  —  FIRST  GRADE 

1.  Birds,     (a)  Watch  for  the   newcomers.      There  will 
be  many  of  them.     Learn  their  names  before  they  come,  if 
possible,  as  suggested  before.     Notice  what  the  birds  are 
doing,  and  make  daily  reports  if  there  is  anything  of  inter- 
est to  tell.     Hold  closely  to  actual  observations. 

(b)  Study  in  detail  the  robin  and  the  red-headed  wood- 
pecker. 

2.  Flowers,      (a)  Watch   for   the   early   spring   flowers. 
As  they  are  brought  in,  press  one  of  each  and  mount  on  a 
large  cardboard,  giving  its  name  and  the  date  when  found. 

(<£)  Study  in  detail  the  violet  and  (c)  the  spring  beauty. 

3.  Trees.      (a)    Watch   the   development    of  the   buds 
studied   last  term.      Watch,  also,  the  development  of  the 
buds  of  the  apple  and  peach  to  complete  the  study  of  these 
fruits  begun  in  the  fall. 

(£)  Notice  what  trees  are  first  in  leaf  and  identify  trees 
by  their  green  leaves. 

(c)  Gather  seeds  of  silver  maple,  elms,  willows,  cotton- 
wood,  and  poplars,  —  any  or  all  of  these,  —  and  complete  the 
tree  charts  begun  in  the  fall. 


ISO      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(tf)  Plant  seeds  of  each  in  the  school  garden  and  watch 
their  growth. 

(e)  Watch  and  care  for  the  seedling  apple  and  peach 
trees. 

4.  Germination  of  seeds.      Early  in   the  term   plant   in 
boxes  in  the  schoolhouse  seeds  of  Lima  bean  and  nastur- 
tium.    Watch  and  describe  developments.     This  will  com- 
plete the  study  of  these  plants  which  was  begun  in  the  fall. 

5.  Plant  in  the  school  garden  Lima  beans  and   nastur- 
tiums for  fall  study  of  the   entering  classes.     Watch   their 
growth  and  give  them  good  care,  watering,  if  necessary,  and 
keeping  free  from  weeds. 

Raise  enough  beans  so  that  the  children  may  store  up  a 
quantity  of  the  ripe  seeds  to  send  out  at  Thanksgiving  time 
to  those  who  are  in  need.  The  nasturtium  blossoms  may  be 
sent  to  sick  rooms  or  to  children's  hospitals,  and  may  be 
used  also  to  decorate  the  schoolrooms. 

HELPS   IN   SPRING   STUDY 

i.    (a)  How  to  identify  the  birds. 

Bird  Neighbors  (Neltje  Blanchan). 
Birds  that  Hunt  and  are  Hunted  (Blanchan). 
Bird-dom  (Leander  Keyser). 
Bird  Life  (Frank  M.  Chapman). 
Handbook  of  Birds  (Chapman). 

The  Common  Land  Birds  of  New  England  (Wilcox). 
Wild  Birds  in  City  Park  (Walter). 
(£)   Robin. 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II  (Dr.  Lockwood). 

Birds  and  Poets  (John  Burroughs). 

Upon  the  Tree-tops  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 

Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass  (Florence  Merriam). 

Lessons  in  Science  (McMurry). 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  l8l 

r 

(r)   Red-headed  woodpecker. 

The  Woodpeckers  (Eckstorm). 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II  (Dr.  Lockwood). 

Nestlings    of    Forest    and    Marsh    (Irene   Grovenor 

Wheelock). 
Lessons  in  Science  (McMurry). 

2.  (a)  How  to  identify  the  flowers  —  see  books  suggested  for 

fall  flower  study. 
(b)    The  violet,  see  — 

Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 

Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden  (F.  Schuyler 
Mathews). 

Ten  New  England  Blossoms  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 

Flower  and  Fruit  (Jane  H.  Newell). 
(f)    The  spring  beauty,  see  — 

Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 

Ten  New  England  Blossoms  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 

How  to  Study  Plants  (Alphonse  Wood). 

Flower  and  Fruit  (Jane  H.  Newell). 

3.  (a)  For  study  of  buds,  see  — 

Lessons  with  Plants  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
Bailey's  Botany. 

Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Botany  (Jane  H.  Newell). 
Lessons  in  Nature  Study  (McMurry). 
The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 
(b  and  c)   See  books  on  study  of  trees  suggested  for  fall 
study. 

4.  For  germination  of  seeds,  see  — 

Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Botany  (Jane  H.  Newell). 
Concerning  a  Few  Common  Plants  (Goodale). 
Atkinson's  Botany. 
Seed  Babies  (Margaret  Morley). 


1 82      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

Lessons  with  Plants  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
From  Seed  to  Leaf  (Jane  H.  Newell). 
Lessons  in  Botany  (Gray). 

FALL  TERM.  —  SECOND  GRADE 

1.  (a)  Review  and  continue  the  study  of  birds  begun  a 
year  ago,  learning  the  names  and  habits  of  additional  birds. 
(Lut.) 

(£)   The  common  crow. 

2.  (a)  Review  the  names  and  characteristics  of  the  fall 
flowers  learned  a  year  ago.     Add  to  the  list  many  others. 

(b)  Study  the  pumpkin  flower  and  fruit. 

(c)  Study  the  melon  by  comparison  with  the  pumpkin. 
((f)   Study  the  sweet  pea  by  comparison  with  the  Lima 

bean. 

(<?)  By  comparison  with  the  pea  and  bean  study  the  red, 
white,  and  sweet  clovers. 

(/)  Study  in  detail  the  wild  black  mustard.  Later  com- 
pare the  hedge  mustard  and  cresses  with  it. 

(g)  Study  the  sunflower  as  a  type  of  the  composites  so 
common  at  this  time  of  year. 

(X)  Compare  other  composite  flowers,  as  the  asters  and 
daisy  fleabane  with  it. 

(i)   Study  in  detail  the  morning-glory. 

(/)  Save  seeds  of  pumpkin,  morning-glory,  sweet  pea, 
and  sunflower  for  spring  planting. 

3.  Trees,    (a)   Review  the  names  of  the  trees  as  the  au- 
tumn leaves  are  gathered  and  learn  the  names  of  other  trees. 

(b)  When  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees  learn  to  recognize 
the  different  trees  by  their  buds,  by  their  outline,  and  by 
their  bark.     Let  this  study  include  the  cherry  and  pear. 

(c)  Gather  acorns  of  the  different  kinds  of  oak  growing  in 


THE    COURSE   OF   STUDY  183 

the  vicinity  and  plant  in  the  school  garden  where  they  will 
not  be  disturbed  in  the  spring.  Mark  plainly  the  portion 
of  ground  occupied  by  each  variety.  Make  a  plat  of  the 
tree  bed,  also,  for  reference  in  the  spring. 

(d)   Winter  study  of  the  Austrian  pine. 

(<?)  Other  evergreen  trees  by  comparison  with  the  pine. 
Study  just  before  Christmas. 

(/)    Continue  to  care  for  apple  and  plum  seedlings; 

4.  Fruits.     Detailed  study  of  the  grape.     Make  cuttings 
of  the  vine  and  plant  in  the  tree  garden.     Plant  seeds  also. 

5.  Butterflies.      (a)    Detailed    study  of  the  "cabbage- 
worm  "  and  milkweed  caterpillar  early  in  the  term.     Find 
eggs  of  the  butterflies,  if  possible,  and  watch  their  develop- 
ment through  the  larva  and  chrysalid  state.    If  the  eggs  can- 
not be  procured,  the  caterpillars  may  be  found.    Collect  and 
feed.     Study  the  butterflies. 

(V)  Collect  other  caterpillars  and  feed.  Notice  how  they 
feed  and  how  they  make  their  cradles  or  change  into 
chrysalids.  Supply  dirt,  leaves  and  twigs. 

(c)  Collect  cocoons  and  keep  through  the  winter  in  the 
schoolroom. 

6.  Dissemination  of  seeds.     Notice  two  different  ways  of 
getting  out  into  the  world :  (a)  by  flying,  using  wings,  or  a 
parachute,  (b)  by  stealing  rides  on  clothing  or  on  the  coats 
of  animals. 

7.  Bulbs.     Plant  bulbs  of  crocus  and  tulips  out  of  doors. 
By  the  first  of  October  put  Chinese  lily  bulbs  into  glass 

dishes  of  water  and  plant  the  paper  white  narcissus  in  pots 
for  fall  blossoms.  Prepare  proper  soil.  At  intervals  of  two 
weeks  or  more  plant  a  new  supply  of  each. 

8.  Make  calendars  in  book  form  in  which  records  of  the 
dark  and  sunny  days  are  kept  in  colored  crayons.     The  di- 
rections of  the  cold  winds,  the  warmer  winds,  and  the  winds 


1 84      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

that  bring  the  snow  are  indicated  by  arrows  pointing  in  the 
direction  from  which  the  wind  comes. 

9.  Winter  study  of  other  evergreen  trees. 

10.  Make  in  water-colors  a  picture  of  the  landscape  as  it 
appears  at  the  beginning  of  each  month. 

HELPS  FOR  FALL  TERM 

1.  (a)   See  books  suggested  for  the  bird  study  of  the  previ- 

ous year. 
(l>)   The  crow. 

Some  Common  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture. 

Hawks  and  Owls  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Farmer. 
The  Common  Crow.     All  published  by  the  United 

States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II  (Dr.  Lockwood). 
Upon  the  Tree- tops  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 
Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass  (Florence  Merriam). 
Winter  Sunshine  (John  Burroughs). 
Little  Brothers  of  the  Air  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 
The  Play  of  Animals  (Karl  Groos). 
Bits  of  Bird  Life  (  Youth's  Companion,  Supplementary 

Reading  No.  7). 

2.  For  study  of  fall  flowers  see  books  recommended  for  first 

grade. 

For  helps  in  the  study  of  the  sweet  pea,  see  — 
"  Life  Story  of  the  Sweet  Pea "  in  First  Studies  in 

Plant  Life  (George  Francis  Atkinson). 
For  study  of  the  clovers,  see  — 
Lessons  with  Plants  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
Chapters  in  Modern  Botany  (Patrick  Geddes). 
For  study  of  the  morning-glory,  see  — 
Flowers  and  their  Friends  (Margaret  Morley). 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  185 

3.  Trees,     (a)   See  the  names  of  books  on  study  of  trees 

given  in  first  grade. 

Nut  planting,  see  — 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

Nut  Culture  in  the  United  States,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

The  Forest  Nursery,  Bulletin  No.  29,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Bureau  of  Forestry). 

4.  The  grape. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Government  Bulletin  on  Grape. 

5.  Milkweed  butterfly. 

Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies  (Julia  P.  Ballard). 
Life  Histories  of  American  Insects  (Clarence  Moores 

Weed). 

The  Butterfly  Book  (Dr.  W.  J.  Holland). 
Practical  Zoology  (Buel  P.  Colton). 
The  Milkweed  Butterfly  (Samuel  H.  Scudder). 
Everyday  Butterflies  (Samuel  H.  Scudder). 

6.  Cabbage  butterfly. 

Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies  (Julia  P.  Ballard). 
Needham's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology. 
The  Butterfly  Book  (Dr.  W.  J.  Holland). 
Stories  of  Insect  Life  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
Everyday  Butterflies  (Samuel  H.  Scudder). 

7.  Dissemination  of  seeds. 

Little  Wanderers  (Margaret  Morley). 

Fertilization  of  Plants  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 

Seed  Travellers  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 

Seed  Dispersal  (W.  J.  Beal). 

Glimpses  of  the  Plant  World  (Bergen). 

First  Studies  in  Plant  Life  (George  Francis  Atkinson). 

Plant  Studies  (Coulter). 


1 86      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

A  Reader  in  Botany  (Jane  H.  Newell). 

8.  Bulbs. 

The  Winter  Window  Garden,  in  Country  Life,  Novem- 
ber, 1903. 

Flowers  and  their  Friends  (Margaret  Morley). 
How  to  Study  Plants  (Alphonse  Wood). 

9.  Study  of  Austrian  pine,  see  — 

Lessons  in  Science  (McMurry). 

WINTER  TERM.  —  SECOND  GRADE 

1.  Birds,   (a)   What     birds    remain    all    winter?     (In 
northern   Illinois  we   have   the   English  sparrow,  blue  jay, 
crow,   prairie    horned   lark,   screech    owl,    brown   creeper, 
downy    and    hairy    woodpeckers,    junco,   and    chickadee.) 
What  do  they  feed  upon  in  the  winter? 

(fr)  As  in  the  first  grade,  attract  the  winter  birds  to  the 
school  building  and  the  homes  of  the  pupils  by  furnishing  a 
tempting  bill  of  fare. 

(c)  Study  in  detail  the  hen. 

(d)  Study  the  English  sparrow. 

(e)  Note  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  birds  from  the 
South.     Keep  a  record  in  a  note-book  which  the  children 
prepare  especially  for  the  purpose. 

2.  (a)   Search   the  woods  for  the   March   flowers.     (In 
northern  Illinois  the  following  may  sometimes   be  found : 
(a)  hepatica,  (b)  spring  beauty,  (c)  and  a  few  dandelions. 
Often  other  varieties  are  to  be  found.) 

(b)   Study  the  crocus  in  March. 

3.  Trees  and  vines  and  bushes,   (a)  In  March  watch  the 
development  of  the  (i)  lilac  buds,  also  buds  of  (ii)  the 
American  elm,  and  (iii)  box  elder. 

(b)  Watch  the  cherry  and  the  pear  buds  to  see  if  any 
changes  occur. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  1 87 

(<:)   Notice  occasionally  the  buds  of  the  grape-vine  to  see 
if  they  are  swelling. 

4.  Study  of  stones  and  pebbles. 

5.  Make  a  picture  of  the  landscape  in  water-colors  at  the 
beginning  of  each  month. 

6.  Good   health.     To   what    due?     (a)   Fresh  air  and 
exercise.     Breathing. 

(b)   Care  of  the  skin.     Why  keep  clean? 
(<r)    Care  of  the  teeth.     Why? 

(d)  Care  of  the  finger  nails.     Why  ? 

(e)  Sleep.     When?     How  long? 

(/)   Getting  the  feet  wet.    Wet  clothing  and  the  danger. 

HELPS 
i.  Birds. 

(a)  See  books  suggested  for  first  year's  work. 

(b)  Food  of  Birds. 

Seed  Travellers  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
How  to  Attract  the  Birds  (Neltje  Blanchan). 
Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

(c)  The  hen. 

Domesticated  Animals  (N.  S.  Shaler). 
Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II  (Dr.  Lockwood). 
(*/)    English  sparrows. 

Lives  of  the  Hunted  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton). 
Birds  Ways  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 
Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
(i)   Spring  migration.     See  books  suggested  the  previous 

year. 
For  study  of  buds  see  books  suggested  the  previous 

year. 
Stones  and  pebbles. 

First  Lessons  in  Geology  (N.  S.  Shaler). 


1 88      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Town  Geology  (Charles  Kingsley). 

How  to  Read  a  Pebble  (Fred  L.  Charles> 

SPRING  TERM.  —  SECOND  GRADE 

1.  Birds,   (a)   Continue  to  note  the  arrival  of  the  com- 
mon summer  residents. 

(b)  Watch  for  the  warblers   and  other  birds  that  pass 
through  on  their  way  north. 

(c)  Make  a  record  in  the  Bird  Note-book  of  the  time  at 
which  each  appears. 

(d)  Make  a  careful  study  of  the  robin. 

(<?)   Study  the  nesting  habits  of  other  songsters. 
(/)  Study  the  red- headed  woodpecker. 

2.  Flowers,    (a)   Each  child  make  a  collection  of  spring 
flowers,  pressing  and  mounting  in  a  book,  and  writing  be- 
side each  flower  the  name  and  date  on  which  it  was  found. 
Take  care  not  to  waste  the  flowers. 

(£)    Study  the  tulip. 

(f)  Follow  one  dandelion  blossom  from  the  time  it  first 
appears  above  ground  through  the  ripening  of  the  seed. 
Pupils  keep  a  written  record  of  what  they  discover. 

(d)   Study  the  hepatica. 

(<?)  Study  the  wild  rose. 

3.  Trees  and  vines,    (a)  Follow  the  growth  of  the  seed- 
lings from  the  acorns  and  nuts  planted  in  the  fall.     Keep  the 
nut  bed  clean  and  transplant  the  seedlings  when  necessary. 

(fr)  Spring  study  of  the  Austrian  pines  and  other  ever- 
green trees. 

(c)  Follow  the  blossoms  of  the  cherry  buds  into  ripened 
fruit  and  the  pear  buds  into  fruit. 

(d)  Follow  the  buds  of  the  American  elm,  box  elder,  and 
lilac  into  leaf  and  through  blossom. 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  189 

(e)   Follow  the  buds  of  the  grape  until  the  fruit  is  well  set. 
(/)   Care  for  the  grape  cuttings. 

4.  Seed  planting.     Plant  in  the  school  garden  seeds  of 
(a)  sweet  pea,  (b)  morning-glory,  (V)  sunflower,  and  (W)  pump- 
kin.    Watch  and  describe  the  development  in  each  case. 
(e)  Late  in  the  term  plant  cherry  pits  in  the  school  garden. 

5.  Get  frog  or  toad  spawn  and  watch  the  changes. 

6.  Make  in  water-colors  the  appearance  of  the  landscape 
the  first  of  each  month. 

HELPS 
i.    (a)   The  warblers. 

The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 

(b)  Robin. 

Birds  and  Poets  (John  Burroughs). 

Upon  the  Tree-tops  (Olive  Thorne  Miller). 

Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass  (Florence  Merriam). 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II  (Dr.  Lockwood). 

Nestlings    of   Forest    and    Marsh   (Irene    Grovenor 

Wheelock). 
Bits  of  Bird  Life  ( Youth's  Companion,  Supplementary 

Reader  No.  7). 
The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 

(c)  Nesting  habits. 

Nestlings    of   Forest    and    Marsh    (Irene    Grovenor 

Wheelock). 

Bird  Homes  (Dugmore),  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Sharp  Eyes  (John  Burroughs). 

(d)  Study  the  red-headed  woodpecker. 
The  Woodpeckers  (Eckstorm). 

Bits  of  Bird  Life  ( Youth's  Companion,  Supplementary 

Reader  No.  7). 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II*(Dr.  Lockwood). 
The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey). 


SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Nestlings    of   Forest    and    Marsh   (Irene    Grovenor 
Wheelock). 

2.  Flowers, 
(a)   Tulip. 

(£)   Dandelion. 

Bailey's  Lessons  with  Plants. 

First  Studies  in  Plant  Life  (George  Francis  Atkinson). 

Flowers,  Fruits,  and  Leaves  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden  (F.  Schuyler 
Mathews). 

Little  Wanderers  (Margaret  Morley). 

Little  Travellers  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
(f)   Hepatica. 

How  to  Study  Plants  (Alphonse  Wood). 

Familiar  Flowers  of  Field  and  Garden  (F.  Schuyler 

Mathews). 
(d)   Wild  rose,  see  — 

Lessons  in  Science  (McMurry). 

Flowers  and  Ferns  of  United  States  (Thomas  Meehan). 

3.  Tree  seedlings. 

"  Life  Story  of  the  Oak  "  in  First  Studies  in  Plant  Life 
(George  Francis  Atkinson). 

4.  Buds.     See  helps  for  previous  yearc 

5.  Frogs  and  toads. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge) . 

FALL  TERM. — THIRD  GRADE 

i.  Plants  of  the  garden  and  yard  (continuation  of  spring 
studies),  (a)  The  sunflower.  Its  powers  of  growth  during 
the  summer.  Where  it  is  usually  found.  Springs  up  in  gar- 
dens where  sunflowers  have  grown  the  year  before.  Period 
of  growth.  Study  of  the  great  heads,  size,  and  arrangement 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  IQI 

of  parts.  Use  of  seeds  by  birds.  Number  of  seeds ;  num- 
ber of  heads.  Suggest  comparison  with  other  composite 
flowers  in  the  fall ;  other  large  annuals,  as  corn  plant,  giant 
ragweed,  mustard,  etc. 

(b)  Dandelions  in  the  fall.     Tendency  to  spring  up  and 
blossom  during  summer  and  fall  till  winter  begins.     Due  to 
wet  weather,  strong  rootstock,  and  many  buds  or  sprouting 
stems. 

References. 

How  to  Study  Plants  (Wood),  pp.  143-147. 
Handbook  of  Nature  Study  (Lange),  pp.  50-57. 
Plants  and  their  Children  (Dana). 

(c)  The  pumpkin.     Growth  and  extent  of  vines  during 
summer  and  fall.     Number  of  blossoms  and  pumpkins  on  a 
vine.     Continuous  growth  and  formation  of  new  pumpkins 
till  frost.     Effects  of  frost.     Interior  structure  of  pumpkin. 
Uses  to  man  and  as  feed  for  stock.     Similarity  to  squashes 
and  melons.     Origin  of  the  pumpkin ;  its  use  among  Indians 
and  pioneers.     In  connection  with  this  lesson,  review  the 
planting  and  germination  of  pumpkin  seeds  in  the  spring. 

(d)  The  morning-glory.     Growth  of  vines  and  how  they 
climb.     Tendrils.     Flowers,  pods,  and  seeds.     Shutting  and 
opening  of  blossoms.     Visited  by  insects.     Effect  of  frosts 
upon  the  vine.     Other  climbing  plants  cultivated  about  the 
house  and  garden,  and  a  brief  comparison. 

(<?)  Growth  of  seedling  trees  in  the  garden  and  yard 
(continuation).  Amount  of  growth  in  length  and  size  during 
the  season.  Differences  in  different  kinds  of  seedlings : 
oaks,  elms,  maples.  Note  the  natural  springing  up  of  differ- 
ent seedlings  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  Take  care  of 
seedlings  in  the  garden  for  later  transplanting. 

(/)   The  grape-vine  (continuation).     Growth  of  the  vine 


SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

during  the  season.  Tendrils  and  climbing  habit.  Amount 
of  growth.  Care  of  cuttings.  Ripening  of  the  fruit.  Kinds 
of  fruit.  Care  and  cultivation  of  the  vines.  Pruning.  Prepa- 
ration for  winter.  Compare  vine  and  fruit  of  the  wild  grape- 
vine with  the  cultivated  varieties.  Effects  of  cultivation. 

References. 

A  Few  Familiar  Flowers  (Morley). 
How  a  Squash  Plant  Grows  out  of  the  Seed.    Cornell 
Teachers'  Leaflets,  No.   i. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Bailey). 

i 

2*  The  robins,  bluebirds,  and  blackbirds  in  the  fall  (re- 
view and  continuation).  Food  and  haunts  in  the  fall.  To 
what  extent  are  they  seen  in  the  fall?  Where  they  spend 
the  winters.  Notice  the  collection  of  great  flocks  of  black- 
birds in  the  fall  in  the  groves  and  corn-fields.  Other  birds 
in  fields  and  hedges.  Observe  the  old  nests  and  their  con- 
struction. 

References. 

The  Woodpeckers  (Eckstrom). 

Some  Common  Birds.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  54.  or 

First  Book  of  Birds  (Miller). 

Birds  of  Village  and  Field  (Merriam). 

Birds  of  the  United  States  (Apgar). 

3.  Trees  of  orchard  and  grove,  (a)  The  apple  tree. 
Review  of  spring  studies.  The  orchard ;  early  and  late 
apples.  Chief  common  kinds,  size,  appearance,  and  qual- 
ity. Wormy  apples  and  reasons.  Failure  of  some  trees  to 
bear  fruit  though  blossoming  freely.  Reasons. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life,  Chapter  XI  (Hodge). 
The  Nursery  Book  (Bailey). 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  1 93 

(f)  Austrian  pine.  Amount  of  growth  during  the  season. 
Buds.  Keeping  the  leaves.  Excursions  to  the  grove.  Seed- 
lings. Growth  of  the  cones.  Collection  of  cones,  buds,  and 
needles.  The  evergreen  grove  or  forest.  Kinds  and  age  of 
trees.  Birds  which  nest  and  roost  among  the  evergreens,  as 
crows,  woodpeckers,  etc.  When  the  needles  fall.  Growth 
of  new  needles. 
References. 

First  Book  of  Forestry  (Roth). 

Trees  of  Northern  United  States  (Apgar). 

Nursery  Book  (Bailey). 

Evergreens,  and  How  they  Shed  their  Leaves.    Cornell 
Teachers'  Leaflets,  No.  13. 

(a)  The  grasshopper  or  locust  in  the  field.  Life  in 
the  meadow.  Movement  of  grasshoppers.  Their  food  and 
organs.  Powers  of  leaping  and  flying.  Young  and  old. 
Nymphs.  Their  molting  and  growth.  Collection  and  feed- 
ing of  specimens.  The  life  history.  Depositing  of  eggs. 
Protective  coloring.  Enemies  that  feed  upon  them.  Chick- 
ens. Migrations  of  grasshoppers.  Their  ravages.  Other 
insects  of  the  meadows  :  crickets,  katydids,  the  walking  stick. 
References. 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology.    "  The  Grasshopper," 
p.  48  (Needham). 

Life   Histories   of  American  Insects,  Chapters  VII, 
VIII,  and  IX  (Weed). 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

(£)  Cockroaches.     A  pest  in  the  house.      Places  infested 
by  them.     How  to  get  rid  of  them. 
References. 

Book  of  Bugs  (Sutherland). 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  .Schools  (Wilson). 


194      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

5.  The  kitchen.     Garden  vegetables   brought  into   the 
kitchen.     The  cleaning  and  preparation  of  vegetables  for 
the   table.     What  vegetables  require  no  cooking:   lettuce, 
radishes,  celery.     Those  requiring  cooking  and  why,  as  po- 
tatoes, beets,  onions,  parsnips,  beans,  and  peas.    The  effects 
of  cooking  on  taste  and  quality  of  foods. 

References. 

The  Chemistry  of  Cookery  (Williams). 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 

The  Vegetable  Garden.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  94. 

6.  The  effects  of  cold  and  frost  with  approaching  winter. 
Changes  in  temperature  measured  by  thermometer.    Effects 
on  gardens  and  vegetation.   The  forest.   Effects  upon  animals. 
Hairy  covering.    Changes  in  clothing  with  approaching  win- 
ter.   The  formation  of  ice  in  a  pail.    In  ponds  and  streams. 
Effects  of  cold  in  the  house.     Heating.     Uses  of  the  ther- 
mometer.   Changes  in  position  of  the  sun  and  length  of  day 
with  approaching  winter. 

References. 

Notes  on  the  Frost.    Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  104. 

WINTER  TERM.  —  THIRD  GRADE 

i.  Pet  animals  and  birds,  (a)  Barnyard  fowl  in  winter. 
Warm  chicken  houses.  Pet  chickens  and  ducks.  Food : 
grain,  waste  from  the  table.  Need  of  sand  and  gravel. 
Watering  the  fowl.  Danger  from  extreme  cold. 

(£)  Pet  canary  bird  in  cage.  Care  in  providing  bird 
food,  water,  warmth,  perches,  bathing  dish.  Observe  its 
motions,  behavior  toward  friends  and  strangers.  Its  fear 
of  cats  and  the  danger  of  cats.  Its  songs  and  speech, 
The  parrot.  Its  food,  talk,  etc. 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  IQ5 

References. 

Fowls,  Care  and  Feeding.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  41. 
Ducks  and  Geese.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  64. 

2.  House  plants.     Care  of  plants  by  the  children. 

(a)  What  house  plants  are  kept  in  winter?  Position  at 
windows  or  otherwise,  Care  of  house  plants :  heat,  water, 
soil,  sun.  Geraniums  and  begonias.  Propagating.  Visit  to 
a  hothouse.  How  warmed.  Native  homes  of  hothouse 
plants.  Insects  infesting  plants  and  how  to  deal  with  them. 

(£)  Tropical  fruits :   orange,  lemon,  and  banana.    Trees 
in  hothouses. 
References. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Hunn  and  Bailey). 
Garden  Making  (Bailey). 

3.  Uses  of  fire  about  the  house,    (a)    Heating.     Effects 
as  shown  by  thermometer.    Kinds  of  fuel  used  :  wood,  hard 
and  soft  coal,  oil,  gas.     Other   combustible  things.     How 
fires  are  started.     Matches.     Kindling.     Dangers  from  fire. 

(&)  Cooking.  Several  ways  of  cooking  with  fire  :  boil- 
ing, roasting,  broiling,  baking,  steaming. 

(c)  Laundry  use. 

(d)  Uses  of  chimneys,  stoves.     Fire-proof  materials. 

(e)  Other  uses  of  fire.     In  working  metals.     Blacksmith. 
Tinner.     Soldering.     For  engines  and  steam. 

(/)   Source  of  heat  in  the  sun. 

4.  Foods  and  eating,    (a)  Variety  of  useful  foods,  meats, 
fruits,  vegetables,   fish,   etc.     Most   nourishing   foods   and 
drinks.     Hurtful   foods   and    drinks.     Unripe   and   spoiled 
fruits.     Bad  habits  in  eating.     Rapid  eating.     Not  chewing 
food.     Intemperance  in  eating  and  drinking.     Use  of  the 
teeth.     The   care   of  the   teeth.     Structure   of  the   teeth. 
Neglect  and  injury  to  the  teeth.    Advice  of  a  dentist  in 


SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

regard  to  the  teeth.    Excessive  eating  of  candies  and  sweet- 
meats.   Poorly  cooked  foods.    How  cooking  improves  foods. 
Good  manners  at  the  table.    The  decoration  of  the  table 
with  flowers  and  fruits. 
References. 

Foods,  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost.     Farmer'  Bulletin, 
No.  23. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 

5.  Signs  of  returning  spring,    (a)   Days  growing  longer. 
Sun  higher.     Sunset  points. 

(£)    Breaking  up  of  ice  ;  melting  of  snows  ;  floods. 

(c)  Returning  of  birds.     Examples  :  robin,  meadow-lark, 
bluebird,  song-sparrow. 

Early  plants  and  flowers.     Crocus,  tulip,  anemone,  hepat- 
ica  (review). 

Birds  departing  for  the  north,  chickadee,  snowbirds,  etc. 

(d)  Trees.     Sap  running,  buds  swelling.     Willow. 

(e)  Animals  coming  from  winter  homes.    Squirrels,  frogs, 
turtles,  insects. 

(/)   Changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  woods  and  fields. 
(g)   Average  temperature  out  of  doors.    Thermometer. 
(h)   Cloudy-  and  rainy  weather.     Bad  roads,  mud. 
(/)    Grass  on  lawn  and  fields  takes  on  a  green  tint. 
(/)    Cause  of  all  these  changes. 

(k)    Effects   upon  people.     Preparation  of  farmers  and 
gardeners  for  spring  work. 

6.  The   window   garden   in   March.      Boxes   and   soil. 
Germination  of  garden  and  flower  seeds.     Care  of  growing 
plants.    Transfer  to  school  garden  later. 

References. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Hunn  and  Bailey). 

Garden  Making  (Bailey). 

Plants  and  their  Children  (Dana). 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  1 97 

SPRING  TERM.  —  THIRD  GRADE 

1.  The  garden,     (a)   The   school  garden.     Preparation 
of  the  soil.     Planting  of  beans,  peas,  corn  and  potatoes, 
four-o'clock  and  aster. 

Careful  cultivation.  Weeds  and  grasses.  Notice  effects 
of  weather,  storms,  warm  days,  etc.  Watch  growth  of  the 
plants.  Continue  study  of  these  in  fall. 

(<£)  Encouragement  of  home  gardens.  Visit  such  gar- 
dens and  compare  with  school  garden.  The  home  garden 
may  be  continued  more  easily  through  the  summer. 

(c)  Visit  larger  gardens  and  notice  modes  of  cultivation, 
tools,  results,  etc. 

(V)  Special  study  of  plants  being  raised  in  the  garden, 
as  to  seed,  soil,  cultivation,  grubs  and  insects  injurious  to 
plants.  Caterpillar  on  parsnip  and  parsley. 

(<?)  The  potato  plant.  Underground  stem  and  tubes. 
The  blossom.  The  potato-beetle.  Its  harm,  and  how  to 
destroy  it. 

References. 

Garden   Making.     Suggestions    for    utilizing    Home 

Grounds  (Bailey). 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Bailey). 
The  Soil  (King). 

2.  Roadside  and  field  plants,     (a)    Plantain,  curly  dock, 
wild  parsnip,  dandelion,  daisy- fleabane,   sweet  clover,   and 
other  rootstocks.     Early  spring  plants  which  are  perennials. 
Excursions  to  find  and  dig  up  these  rootstocks.     Rhubarb 
and  horse-radish  in  gardens.      Study  in  class  of  the  root- 
stocks.     Where  do  these  plants  flourish  best  ? 

(fr)  Trace  the  growth  of  these  plants  during  the  spring 
season  to  flower  and  fruit  so  far  as  possible. 


198       SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(f)  Contrast  these  plants  with  the  annuals.  Continue 
into  the  fall. 

3.  The    orchard  and  bush   fruits,     (a)    Peaches   and 
plum  trees.     Planting  and  raising  of  seedlings.     Buds  and 
blossoms.     Frosts.     Development  of  young  fruit.     Visits  of 
insects  to  flowers. 

(£)  Blackberry  and  raspberry.  Propagation.  Roots  and 
underground  stems.  Young  shoots  and  old  stalks.  Blos- 
soming and  fruit.  Young  plants,  how  started. 

(c)   Garden    weeds.       Milkweed.     Underground    stem. 
Other  weeds  and  their  roots. 
References. 

Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them.     Farmers'  Bulletin, 

No.  28. 

The  Peach-tree  Borer.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  80. 
The  Nursery  Book  (Bailey). 
Garden  Making  (Bailey). 

4.  Birds  of  the  orchard  and  garden,    (a)  The  mourning 
dove ;  nest.     The  blue  jay ;  habits,  food.     The  humming- 
bird ;  honeysuckle,  trumpet-vine,  columbine.     Wren,  chick- 
adee, bluebird,  woodpecker.     Baltimore  oriole ;  nest.     The 
scarlet  tanager.     Yellow  warbler.     Rose-breasted  grosbeak. 

(£)  Making  of  bird-houses  for  different  birds.  Bird 
enemies  :  snakes,  cats,  and  owls. 

(f)   The  insects  —  plant   lice,  caterpillars,  borers  —  and 
seeds  and  fruits  devoured  by  the  birds.     Quarrels  among 
the  birds. 
References. 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II,  "  Birds  "  (Lockwood). 
Everyday  Birds  (Torrey). 

Some  Common  Birds.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  54. 
The  Birds  and  I.     Cornell  Teachers'  Leaflets,  No.  10. 
(Bailey). 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  1 99 

5.  Shade  trees,    (a)   The  maple.     Early  buds,  blossoms, 
winged  seeds,  and  leaves.     Flow  of  sap.     Sugar  making. 

(£)  The  oak.  Long-hanging  catkins,  small  green  buds 
of  pistillate  flowers.  Growth  of  the  acorns.  Sprouting  of 
old  acorns  in  the  soil.  Leaves. 

(c)  The  birch.     Its  peculiar  bark.     Catkins. 

(d)  Catalpa  and  honey  locust.     Blossoms  and  leaves  of 
special  interest.     Study  the  same  trees  again  in  the  fall. 

References. 

Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves  (Mathews). 
The  Common  Trees  (Stokes). 
Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States  (Apgar). 
Guide  to  the  Trees  (Lou ns berry ). 

6.  The  lawn,    (a)   Making  a  lawn.     Sowing  grass  seed. 
Kinds  of  grasses.     Blue  grass.     Clover. 

(p)  Weeds.  Dandelion,  plantain,  wild  grasses,  crab 
grass,  pigeon  grass,  ragweed,  knotweed,  chickweed. 

(<r)  Watering  the  lawn.  Plenty.  The  rain.  The  earth- 
worm. 

(d)  The  mole.  Burrowing.  Food  and  habits  of  the 
mole.  Organs.  Castor  beans  planted  to  prevent  moles. 

(<?)  Shrubbery :  lilac,  snowball,  sumac,  syringa,  spirea, 
bridal-wreath,  Japan  quince,  flowering  almond,  honeysuckle. 

(/)  Birds  frequenting  the  lawn.  Robin  searching  for 
earthworm  and  caterpillars.  English  sparrow.  Dandelion 
heads. 

References. 

Garden    Making,    Suggestions    for    utilizing    Home 

Grounds  (Bailey). 
The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Bailey). 


2OO      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

FALL  TERM.  —  FOURTH  GRADE 

1.  Continue  plant  studies  of  spring  as  follows  :  (a)  maple, 
oak,  birch,  catalpa. 

(£)    Fruit  trees  and  blackberry. 

(c)  Roots  of  dock,  dandelion,  sweet-clover,  etc. 

(d)  Garden  vegetables. 

References. 

The  Vegetable  Garden.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  94. 
Guide  to  the  Trees  (Lounsberry). 
Stories  of  the  Trees  (Mrs.  Dyson). 
The  Common  Trees  (Stokes). 

2.  The  corn  plant  (review  previous  studies),    (a)    Full 
stalk  of  field  corn  for  study.    Visit  garden  and  corn-fields  in 
September.      The    nodes   and    internodes    on    the    stalk. 
Arrangement  and  uses  of  blades.      The  ear  and  its  stalk. 
Arrangement  of  ears.     Silk  and  tassel.     Roots  and  the  cul- 
tivation  of  corn.      Soils   and   productiveness.     The  corn- 
worm  ;  chinch-bug.      Experiments  in  cultivating  the  corn 
plant.     Rust  and  the  effects  of  weather.      History  of  corn 
plant  among  Indians  and  whites.     Kinds  of  corn  in  common 
use. 

(b)  Grasses :   timothy,  blue    grass.      Resemblances    to 
corn. 

(c)  Grains  :  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley. 

References. 

Corn  Plants,  their  Uses  and  Ways  (Sargent). 
Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat.     Farm- 
ers' Bulletin,  No.  132. 
Agriculture  for  Beginners  (Burkett,  Storms,  and  Hill). 

3.  Weeds  of  garden  and  field,      (a)   Milkweed.     Pods 
and  seeds.     Seed  dispersal. 


THE   COURSE    OF    STUDY  2OI 

(Z>)  Butter  print  (velvetweed)  ;  flowering  and  seed. 
Amarinth  (pigweed). 

(c)  Cocklebur;   vigor  of  the  plant;    seed  production. 
Lamb's-quarters. 

(d)  Ragweed  and  purslane. 

(<?)     Fox- tail  grass ;  quick  (quack)  grass. 

(f)  Burdock ;  mullein  in  meadows  and  pastures. 

(g)  Bindweed  or  wild  morning-glory.     Difficulties  in  rid- 
ding fields  of  weeds  because  of  abundance  of  seeds,  scatter- 
ing and  distribution  of  seeds,  tough  hardy  plants  and  roots. 

(#)    Birds  as  seed  destroyers. 

References. 

Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them.     Farmers'  Bulletin, 

No.  28. 

Nature's  Garden  (Blanchan). 
The  Children's  Garden  (Bailey).     Cornell  Teachers' 

Leaflets. 
Seed  Dispersal  (Beal). 

4.  Kinds  of  rocks,  (a)  Pebbles  from  the  stream.  His- 
tory of  the  pebble.  The  boulder. 

(3)  Limestone.  Marble.  Fossils.  Coral.  Sandstone. 
Rindstone.  Stratified  rock. 

(c)  Quartz.     Granite.     Igneous  rocks.     Lava.     Clays. 

(d)  Making  of  concrete  walks. 

(<?)  The  decay  of  stones  by  weathering.  Foundations  of 
buildings.  Monuments.  Experiments  with  acids  on  stones. 
Formation  of  soils  from  rock  decay.  Rich  and  poor  soils. 

(/)   Collections  of  specimens  and  grouping. 

References. 

How  to  Read  a  Pebble  (Charles). 
Town  Geology  (Kingsley). 


2O2      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

About  Pebbles  (Hyatt). 

Common  Minerals  and  Rocks  (Crosby). 

5.  Common   stars  and  constellations,     (a)   Big    dipper 
and  north  star.     The  stars  as  guides  to  sailors  and  travellers. 

(b)  Orion,  Cassiopeia.  The  dog  star.  Pleiades.  The 
apparent  movement  of  the  constellations  at  night. 

(<r)    The  planets.     Jupiter.     Venus.     Changing  position. 

(d)  The  moon  and  its  changes.     Observation  of  the  cycle 
of  four  weeks. 

(e)  The  changes  of  position  of  the  constellations  with  the 
seasons. 

References. 

Astronomy  by  Observation  (Bowen). 

The  Story  of  the  Stars  (Chambers). 

Unography.    The  Constellations  Visible  in  the  United 

States  (Young). 
Starland  (Ball). 
Familiar  Talks  on  Astronomy  (Parker). 

6.  The  larger  birds,    (a)   Habits,  food,  eyes,  claws,  night 
habits.     Relation  to  other  birds  and  animals. 

(fr)  Hawk.  Kinds  of  hawks  and  their  prey;  chicken 
hawks ;  fish  hawks.  Owls. 

(<r)  The  eagle.  Its  nesting  places.  Its  power  of  flight 
and  strength.  Food.  The  eagle  as  a  national  emblem. 

(d)   The  buzzard.    A  scavenger.     Laws  protecting  it. 

References. 

Citizen  Bird  (Wright  and  Coues). 
The  First  Book  of  Birds  (Miller). 
Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins  (Johonnot). 
Birds  of  the  United  States  (Apgar). 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  2O3 

7.  Cleanliness  in  kitchen,  (a)  A  model  kitchen  and 
pantry.  The  chemistry  of  cleaning.  Utensils.  Solvents  of 
grease. 

(V)  Flies.  Means  of  ridding  the  kitchen  of  them, — 
screens,  poison  paper,  etc.  The  breeding  places.  Cleanli- 
ness in  back  yard.  Danger  of  flies  in  dining  room  and 
kitchen.  Their  feet  as  means  of  carrying  germs. 

(V)  The  sink.  Construction  and  how  kept  clean.  Soap, 
sapolio.  The  trap  and  its  uses.  Disinfectants.  How  used. 

(d)  The  mould  on  bread  and  fruit. 

(e)  Soap.     The  uses  of  soap.     The  making  of  soap.     Its 
ingredients. 

References. 

The  Chemistry  of  Cleaning  and  Cooking  (Richards 

and  Elliott). 

Handbook  of  Household  Science  (Youmans). 
Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 

WINTER  TERM.  —  FOURTH  GRADE 

i.  Common  tools  and  inventions,  (a)  The  crowbar. 
The  lever  and  its  uses. 

(ft)  The  plane.  Planing  machines,  machines  for  planing 
wood  and  iron. 

(c)  The  screw.  The  jack-screw,  various  uses.  Work 
bench. 

(*/)  The  wheel  and  axle.  Axle  grease  and  friction.  In 
wagons. 

(<?)     Rope  and  pulley.    Uses  in  barns  and  warehouses. 

(/)  The  steel  in  edged  tools.  Grindstone.  Ideas  in- 
volved in  chest  of  tools. 

(g)  The  life  preserver.  Materials.  Specific  gravity  of 
water,  wood,  cork,  etc. 


2O4      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(h)    The  derrick  and  its  construction  and  use.     Observe 
in  quarries  and  shops. 

(i)    The  turning  lathe  and  its  uses. 

References. 

Text-books  in  Physics. 
Experimental  Science  (Hopkins). 

2.  Water  in  its  various  forms  and  uses,     (a)  Uses  of 
common  water  to  plants,  animals,  and  man. 

(b)  Steam  and  its  nature.     Uses.      Steam  for  power, 
cooking,  heating,  etc.     Evaporation. 

(c)  Ice.     Effects  of  freezing.     Uses  of  ice.     Snow,  sleet. 
(ff)    Water  as  a  solvent. 

(e)     Sources  of  pure  drinking  water.    Causes  of  impurity 
and  disease.     Filtering ;  distilling. 

(/)   Mineral  springs.     Rivers.    The  ocean. 
(g)    Water  vapor  in  the  air.     Rain,  snow,  etc. 

References. 

Popular  Readings  in  Science  (Gall  and  Robertson). 

On  Forms  of  Water  (Tyndall). 

Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  (Baker). 

3.  The  skin  and  its  uses  to  the  body,     (a)  Structure  and 
parts  of  the  skin.     The  pores.     Perspiration. 

(£)  Keeping  the  pores  open  by  exercise,  by  rubbing. 

(c)  Bathing.     The  office  of  the  skin.     Effects  of  cold  and 
hot  bathing. 

(d)  Sudden  changes.     Colds  and  catarrhs. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 
Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene  (Krohn). 
Text-books  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY 

4.  The  metals,    (a)  The  common  metals.     Collect  speci- 
mens of  pure  metal  and  crude  ores. 

(£)  Lead.  Melting  and  moulding  of  lead.  Its  various 
uses  due  to  its  qualities.  Lead  poisoning. 

(<:)  Iron  and  its  qualities.  Reduction  of  ores.  Steel 
and  its  qualities.  The  simple  magnet.  Modes  of  making 
steel. 

(d)  Gold  and  silver.  Smelting  of  ores.  Use  of  quick- 
silver. Value  of  chemistry  in  the  reduction  of  ores. 

(<?)    Copper.     Tin  and  zinc. 

(/)  Aluminum.     Its  source  from  clay. 
References. 

Economic  Geology  of  the  United  States  (Tarr). 
Text-book  of  Mineralogy  (Dana). 

5.  Trees   in    winter,   (a)  Effects    of   cold   upon  trees. 
Barren  appearance.     Frost  in  the  fall,  nipping  and  shrivel- 
ling some  leaves  as  catalpa.     Killing  of  the  long,  tender 
shoots  of  the  willow,  box  elder,  and  other  trees,  by  cold. 
Killing  of  fruit  trees  and  even  forest  trees  by  extreme  cold. 
The  breaking  of  boughs  by  sleet  and  snow.     The  uprooting 
of  trees  by  storms. 

(&)  The  buds  in  winter  time.  The  buds  wrapped  to  pro- 
tect against  sudden  changes. 

(c)  Preparation  of  the  buds  in  February  and  March  for 
coming  spring.  The  sap  in  trees  in  spring. 

References. 

How  Trees  Look  in  Winter  (Bailey).  Cornell  Teachers' 

Leaflets,  No.  12. 
First  Book  of  Forestry  (Roth). 
Hutchinson's  Study  of  Trees  in  Winter. 

6.  Budding  and  grafting  of  fruit  trees,    (a)   Study  of 
twigs  to  note  yearly  growth.    Leaf  buds.   Apple,  pear,  peach. 


2O6      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(b)  Difference  between  seedlings  and  grafted  or  budded 
fruits.  The  process  of  grafting  and  budding  as  seen  in  a 
nursery. 

(V)  New  varieties  of  fruit  obtained  from  seedlings.  The 
development  of  choice  varieties  by  selection  and  cultivation. 

References. 

The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It.     Farmers'  Bulletin, 

No.  113. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
The  Nursery  Book  (Bailey). 

7.    Temperance  in   eating  and  drinking,   (a)   Healthful 
foods  and  moderation  in  eating. 
(ft)    Bad  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks. 
(f)   The  uses  of  milk. 
(</)   Tea  and  coffee. 

References. 

Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 
How  to  Keep  Well  (BlaisdeU). 
Physiology  and  Hygiene  (Hutchison). 

SPRING  TERM.  —  FOURTH  GRADE 

i.  Wild  spring  flowers  in  the  woods,  (a)  A  calendar  of 
the  spring  flowers.  Time  and  place  of  first  appearance. 

(b)  Spring   beauty,  water  leaf,  violets,  mandrake,    Solo- 
mon's  seal,  trillium,  the   ferns,  wild   geranium0      Depend- 
ence  of  forest  plants  on  shade   and  protection  of  trees. 

(c)  Transfer  of  plants  to  the  school  and  home  garden. 
Soils  suited  to  various  plants.    Flower  garden.     Leaf  mould, 
and  soil. 

(d)  Care  against  waste  and  destruction  of  wild  plants. 


THE    COURSE   OF    STUDY  2O/ 

References. 

Nature  Study  by  Months  (Boyden). 

2.  Tree  study  in   early  spring  (April),   (a)    Excursions 
into  the  woods.    Recognition  of  trees  by  size,  outline,  frame- 
work, bark,  and  buds.     Colors  and  marking  of  stems.     Size 
of  buds  on  hickory,  cottonwood,  elm,  maple,  etc. 

(f)  Collection  of  specimens  of  buds,  bark,  and  of  sec- 
tions of  wood. 

(V)   Drawings  of  framework  and  branching  of  trees. 

References. 

How  Trees  Look  in  Winter.     Cornell  Teachers'  Leaf- 
lets, No.  12. 
Hutchinson's  Study  of  Trees  in  Winter. 

3.  The    tame   duck    and  goose,    (a)    The   duck   pond. 
Swimming  and  diving  of  the  ducks.     The  uses  of  their  feet, 
bill,  feathers,  eyes.     The  waddling  of  ducks  on  land.     Food 
and  care  of  ducks  in  winter.     Nesting  places  and  hatching. 
Young  ducks.     Value  of  ducks  as  poultry. 

(d)  The  goose.  Feeding  in  the  meadows  and  in  water. 
Size  and  value  of  the  eggs.  Use  of  the  feathers.  Compare 
with  the  duck.  Compare  with  the  chicken. 

References. 

Ducks  and  Geese.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  64. 

4.  Poisonous  plants  in  the  woods,     (a)    Kinds  of  poison- 
ous plants  in  the  woods :  poison  ivy,  poison   oak,   poison 
hemlock,  poison  sumac.     The  effect  of  this  poisoning  upon 
the  skin  and  mode  of  treatment. 

(fr)  Mushroom.  Difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  the 
edible  and  poisonous  kinds. 

(V)    Choke-cherry,  buckeye,  wild  parsnip. 
(d)   Nettles,  smartweed. 


2O8      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

References. 

Thirty  Poisonous  Plants.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  86. 
Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Mushrooms  (Gibson). 

5.  The  care  of  chickens  in  spring  (by  children),     (a)   Ob- 
serve   and    care    for    hens  and    chickens    in   springtime. 
Their   enjoyment    of    the   warm   spring    sun.      The    dust 
bath.     Crowing,  cackling.     Hunting  for  worms  and  insects 
in  the  yard  and  in  the  fresh-ploughed  garden.     The  nesting 
and  setting  of  hens.     Time  needed  for  hatching.     Hatching 
out  of  chicks.     The  chicken-coop.     Care   and  protection 
of  the  mother  hen   for  her  chicks.     Scratching  for  food. 
Danger  to  chicks  from  rats,  hawks,  cats,  etc.     Feeding  the 
hen  and  young  chicks.     Water.     Rainy  weather.     Review 
of  feet,  bill,  feathers,  .crop,  gizzard,  wings. 

(£)   The  pigeons  and  the  pigeon-house.    Cooing.    Hatch- 
ing and  feeding  of  young.    The  food,  flight,  and  habits  of 
pigeons. 
References. 

Fowls :    Care   and  Feeding.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 

41. 
Standard    Varieties  of  Chickens.   Farmers'  Bulletin, 

No.  51. 
Squab  Raising.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  177. 

6.  The    meadow  flowers,      (a)   The   grasses :    timothy, 
blue  grass.     The  blossom  and  seeds.     Their  value  to  farm- 
ers and  for  lawns.     The  white  and  red  clover.     Roots  of 
clover  and  value  to  the  soil.     Bees  and  honey  in  clover. 

(ft)  The  meadow  rue,  primrose,  fleabane,  meadow  lily, 
purple  cone  flower,  buttercup,  marsh  marigold. 

(c)  Wild  rose;  study  of  the  blossom;  compare  with 
cultivated  roses. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  2OQ 

References. 

The   Corn   Plants:    their  Uses   and  Ways   of    Life 

(Sargent). 
Ten  New  England  Blossoms  (Weed). 

7.  A  clean  cellar,  (a)  The  proper  drainage  of  the  cellar 
and  cellar  walls.  Cementing  walls.  Orderliness. 

(b~)  Cement  floors.  Washing  and  cleaning  and  drainage 
of  floors. 

(<r)   Vegetable  cellar.     Decaying  fruits  and  vegetables. 

(d)  The  laundry  tubs  and  wash  water. 

(e)  Ventilation  and  drying  out  of  cellar  at  intervals. 

(/)    Dust,  paper,   rags,  and  rubbish.     Ashes,  coal  dust, 
spontaneous  combustion. 
(g)   Rats  and  mice ;  traps. 
(h)   Whitewash  and  disinfectants. 

FALL  TERM.  —  FIFTH  GRADE 

i.  Pond  life  in  the  fall,  (a)  The  turtle.  Shell  and 
peculiar  structure.  Life  history ;  habits.  Food,  and  how 
obtained.  Hibernation  in  fall  and  winter. 

(£)  The  muskrat.  Food,  and  life  in  water.  Preparation 
for  winter.  Organs.  The  muskrat  house.  Materials  and 
construction. 

(<:)  Tame  ducks  and  geese.  Life  in  water.  Feet,  bill, 
and  feathers.  Food.  Nesting.  The  young.  Compare 
with  wild  ducks  and  geese. 

(//)  Mosquitoes  in  late  summer  and  fall.  Excursion  to 
the  pond.  Metamorphosis  of  mosquito  in  pond.  Collect 
eggs,  and  hatch.  Modes  of  protection  against  mosquitoes. 
Means  of  destroying  them.  Disease  germs  carried  by  mos- 
quitoes. 

(e)   The  crab. 


2IO      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(/)  Tree  and  other  plant  life  about  the  pond.  Rushes, 
sedges,  and  coarse  grasses. 

(g)  An  aquarium.  Care  of  plants  and  animals  in 
aquarium. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

Ducks  and  Geese.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  64. 

In  Brook  and  Bayou  (Bayliss). 

Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams  (Furneaux). 

Lessons  in  Zoology  (Needham). 

2.  Birds  that  feed  upon  weed  seeds,     (a)   The  abundance 
of  weed  seeds  in  fields  and  by  roadsides.     Kinds  of  weeds. 
Collection  of  samples  of  seeds. 

(fr)  Birds  useful  as  weed  destroyers.  The  junco  and  other 
sparrows.  The  blackbird.  The  snowbirds.  Finches  and 
quails.  The  English  sparrow.  Observing  birds  when  feeding. 

(f)   The  effect  upon  farms,  gardens,  and  lawns. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Birds  as  Weed  Destroyers.     Bulletin. 

3.  Orchard,     (a)   The   apple   tree.     Cultivation  of  the 
apple.     Pruning  and  trimming  of  trees. 

(<£)  Insects  injurious  to  apple  tree.  Codling  moth. 
Collections  for  spring.  Apple-tree  borer.  Tent-caterpillar, 
(follow  next  spring). 

(c)  Peach  trees.  Care  of  trees ;  pruning.  Budding  in 
fall.  Cutworms  and  how  to  avoid  them. 

References. 

The  Codling  Moth,  Bulletin  142,  Cornell  University. 

The  Peach-tree  Borer,  Bulletin  176. 

The  Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits  (Bailey). 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  211 

The  Apple,  and  How  to  Grow  It  (Brackett).  Farm- 
ers' Bulletin,  No.  113. 

Life  Histories  of  American  Insects  (Weed). 

The  Peach-tree  Borer.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  54. 

Important  Insecticides.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  19. 

Spraying  Fruit  Diseases.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  38. 

Apple  Twigs  (Bailey).  Cornell  Teachers'  Leaflets, 
No.  3. 

4.  Inventions  and  Instruments,     (a)   The   stove.     Fur- 
nace.    Lamp.     Structure;  ventilation;  air;  oxygen  in  the 
air  necessary  to  fire. 

(£)  The  thermometer.  Construction ;  expansion  due  to 
heat ;  scientific  and  common  uses  of  thermometer.  Other 
illustrations  of  expansion  and  contraction. 

(c)   The  compass.     Magnetic  needle ;  uses  in  navigation, 
etc.     History  of  its  early  use  and  value. 
References. 

Lessons  in  Physics  (Lothrop  and  Higgins). 
Other  Text-books  in  Physics. 
The  History  of  Physics  (Cajori). 

5.  The  cooking  of  starchy  foods.      (a)  The   starch   in 
plants :   potato,  corn,  rice,  wheat,  etc.     The   starch   test. 
Starch  and  sugar.     Chemical  elements  in  starch. 

(ft)  Effect  of  cooking  upon  starchy  foods.  Boiling  pota- 
toes ;  cooking  rice.  Recipes  for  cooking  vegetables. 

(f)  The  digestion  of  starchy  foods.  Value  of  starch  for 
heat ;  energy  and  fat. 

References. 

Domestic  Science   in   Elementary  Schools,  Chapter 

III  (Wilson). 
Elements  of  the  Theory  and   Practice  of  Cookery 

(Williams  and  Fisher). 


212      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

The  Chemistry  of  Cookery  (Williams). 
Colton's  Physiology. 

6.  Minerals,  (a)  Salt.  Nature  of  salt.  Salt  deposits. 
Uses  of  salt  in  food  as  preservative.  Solution  in  water. 
The  ocean  saltness.  Manufacture  of  salt  by  evaporation. 

(£)  Lime.  Lime  in  water.  Hard  water.  Limestone. 
The  lime  kiln.  Lime  as  a  soil  maker.  The  limestone 
quarry. 

References. 

First  Lessons  in  Minerals  (Richards). 
Observation  Lessons  in  Common  Minerals  (Clapp). 
Common  Minerals  and  Rocks  (Crosby). 

WINTER  TERM.  —  FIFTH  GRADE 

1.  Tobacco  and  its  uses,    (a)  The  tobacco  plant.     Nico- 
tine as  a  poison. 

(£)  Cigarettes  and  how  made.  The  effects  of  smoking 
cigarettes  by  boys.  Physical  and  mental  effects.  Testimony 
of  physicians.  The  slavish  influence  of  bad  habits. 

(c)  The  economy  of  the  tobacco  habit. 

(d)  Tobacco  smoke  used  on  plants  to  destroy  plant  lice, 
etc. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 
Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 

2.  Winter  birds,     (a)  Observe  and  make  a  note  of  birds 
which  remain  during  the  winter.    Study  especially  the  three 
following  groups  :  — 

(b)  Seed  consumers :  sparrows,  snowbirds,  English  spar- 
rows, quail,  snowflake,  tree-sparrow. 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  213 

(t)  Insect  eaters:  woodpeckers,  chickadee,  brown 
creeper,  nuthatch. 

(d)  Birds  of  prey :  hawks,  eagles,  etc. 

(<?)  Feeding  the  birds  in  winter.  Effects  of  severe 
weather,  as  icy  and  sleet  weather,  upon  birds.  Feeding 
of  birds  with  crumbs,  grain,  and  suet. 

(/)  Trees  and  shrubs  which  supply  food  to  birds  in  win- 
ter :  choke-cherry,  hackberry,  elderberry,  cedar,  juniper,  etc. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Birds  of  Village  and  Field  (Merriam). 
Life  of  Audubon,  the  Naturalist. 
The  First  Book  of  Birds  (Miller). 

3.  Inventions,     (a)   The  water-wheel   as   a  mechanical 
power.     Construction  and  use  as  source  of  power. 

(<£)  The  wind-mill.  The  machinery  by  which  the  power 
is  made  available  for  pumping,  etc. 

(c)  Gunpowder  and  explosive  ingredients.     Uses  of  gun- 
powder.    Blasting.      Rifle   and   shot-gun;   care   and  use. 
Danger  of  toy  pistols,  firecrackers.     Heavy  ordnance. 

(d)  The  reaper  as  a  labor-saving  machine.     The  value 
of  these  inventions  for  increasing  production  and  cheapen- 
ing products. 

References. 

Text-books  in  Physics. 

Progress  of   Invention  in  the   Nineteenth  Century 

(Byrn). 
History  of  Physics  (Cajori). 

4.  Stones  of  hunting  and  life  of  wild  animals,    (a)  Large 
game  in  America :  buffalo,  deer,  elk,  beaver,  bear,  grizzly, 
eagle,  turkey,  alligators,  the  green  turtles. 


214      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(£)  Stories  of  famous  hunters  and  their  adventures  in 
hunting  big  game. 

(f)  Descriptions  of  the  homes,  haunts,  and  habits  of  these 
animals  in  their  wild  state. 

(d)  Preserves  of  wild  animals  of  North  America. 

(e)  Zoological  gardens  in  large  cities. 
References. 

Stories  of  Animal  Life  (Holder). 
Wilderness  Ways  (Long). 
Natural  History  in  Anecdote  (Miles). 
Training  of  Wild  Animals  (Bostock). 
American  Animals  (Stone  and  Gram). 
Lives  of  the  Hunted  (Seton). 
Wild  Beasts  (Porter). 

5.  The  teeth,     (a)  Kinds  of  teeth :  incisors,  canine,  pre- 
molars,  molars.     First  teeth. 

(£)  Teeth  of  animals  previously  studied :  dog,  squirrel, 
ox,  horse,  cat.  Food  required  for  each  kind. 

(c)  Structure  of  the  teeth.     Enamel.     Wrong  uses  of  the 
teeth. 

(d)  Cleansing  teeth.     Brush,  powder. 

(e)  Dentistry  and   treatment  of  teeth.      Advantage   of 
skilled  specialists. 

(/)  Chewing  of  food.  Kinds  of  food  that  need  thorough 
chewing. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 
Text-books  in  Physiology. 

6.  Weather  study  in  the  spring,     (a)  Record  of  weather 
observations.     Temperature  and  cloudiness.     Use  barome- 
ter and   thermometer.     Notice    and  compare   reports   of 
weather  bureau. 


THE    COURSE   OF   STUDY  21 5 

(£)  Observations  and  experiments  on  evaporation.  How 
clouds  are  formed  in  the  sky.  The  rain  storm.  Hail. 
Movement  of  moisture  from  ocean  to  cloud  and  return  to 
ocean. 

(V)  The  thunder-storm.  Lightning  and  electricity.  The 
story  of  Franklin  and  the  kite. 

(d)  Effect  of  weather  conditions  upon  garden  and  farm. 
Too  much  moisture  or  drought. 

References. 

A  Summer  Shower  (Tarr).    Cornell  Teachers'  Leaflets, 

No.  14. 

About  the  Weather  (Harrington),  Appleton  &  Co. 
Elementary  Meteorology  (Waldo). 

SPRING  TERM.  —  FIFTH  GRADE 

i.  The  forest  frees,  (a)  Tree  calendar.  The  leafing 
out  of  different  trees.  Their  blossoms  and  leaves.  The 
oak;  staminate  and  pistillate  blossoms.  The  hickory,  the 
basswood,  the  chestnut. 

(b)  The  crab-apple,  the   haw,  the  hackberry,  the  wild 
cherry,  birch,  sycamore,  the  tulip,  the  mulberry,  the  per- 
simmon, the  paw-paw. 

(c)  The  evergreens  in  spring.     Study  of  the  white  pine. 

(d)  The  natural    propagation    of   trees  in  the  woods. 
Seedlings  of  different  kinds  of  trees. 

References. 

A  Year  among  the  Trees  (Flagg). 

Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves  (Mathews). 

The  Common  Trees  (Stokes). 

The  Stories  of  the  Trees  (Dyson). 

Succession  of  Forest  Trees  and  Wild  Apples  (Thoreau). 

Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States  (Apgar). 


2l6      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

2.  Bees,     (a)  Honey-bee.     Observation  of  bees  among 
the  flowers.     White  clover,  pollination.     Effects. 

(b)  The  hive  ;  its  construction  and  arrangement.     Flowers 
from  which  bees  collect  honey.     Moth  and  other  enemies. 

(c)  Different  kinds  of  honey-bees. 

(</)  Range  of  bees  and  habits  in  collecting  honey.    Uses 
to  greenhouses. 

0)  The    bumblebees.      Their    nests    and    food.      Red 
clover.     Life  history. 

(/)  Hornets  and  wasps.     Paper  making. 

(g)  List  of  flowers  visited  by  bees. 

(h)  Value  of  bees  to  gardeners  and  fruit  growers. 
References. 

Bee-keeping.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  59. 
The  Honey  Makers  (Morley). 

3.  The  pond,     (a)  The  common  frog.     Early  appearance 
in  spring.     Frogs'  eggs.     Hatching.     Tadpoles.     Food  and 
growth.     Noises.     Mouth,  legs,  and  feet.     Swift  movement 
in  water.      Enemies   of  the   frogs,   as   fishes,  water-birds, 
snakes.     Means  of  escape. 

(£)  Treatment  and  feeding  frogs  in  the  aquarium.    Re- 
semblance of  aquarium  to  pond. 
(f)  Salamanders,  newts,  lizards. 
(</)  Managing  an  aquarium. 
References. 

The  Frog  (Marshal). 

Life  in  an  Aquarium   (Rogers).    Cornell  Teachers' 

Leaflets,  No.  n. 
Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology  (Needham). 

4.  The  house  cat.     (a)  Habits  of  the  house  cat  in  hunt- 
ing for  mice,  birds,  etc. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  21 J 

(b)  How  the  cat  is  able  to  provide  for  itself  by  its  feet, 
teeth,  tongue,  whiskers,  eyes,  and  fur. 

(c)  Why  cats  are  kept  as  pets. 

(d)  The  cat  as  an  enemy  to  useful  birds. 

(<?)  The  close  kindred  of  the  cat  among  the  wild  animals  : 
wildcat,  tiger,  cougar. 

References. 

Chapters  on  Animals  (Hamerton). 
Introduction  to  Zoology  (Schmeil). 
Text-books  of  Zoology. 

5.  The  ox,  its  food  and  organs,     (a)  Grazing  in  the 
pastures.     Habits  of  cud  chewing. 

(b)  The   mouth   and  teeth   of  the  ox.     Other  food,  as 
corn,  fodder,  root  crops,  etc. 

(c)  The    stomachs  of  an  ox.      Uses    of   the   different 
stomachs. 

(</)  Oxen  as  draft  animals. 

(e)  Other    cud-chewing   animals :    sheep,   deer,   buffalo, 
goat. 

(/)  Contrast  of  ox  with  horse  and  with  dog  and  cat. 

References. 

Practical  Zoology  (Col ton). 

Practical  Biology  (Huxley  and  Martin). 

6.  The  nursery  and  the  orchard,    (a)  Seedlings  of  apple, 
pear,  peach,  cherry,  etc.     Plant  seeds  and  cultivate  seed- 
lings.   Many  seeds  are  best  planted  in  the  fall  in  preparation 
for  spring  study. 

(£)  Planting  of  fruit  trees  in  the  orchard.  Soil  and  ar- 
rangement of  trees.  Spacing. 

(c)  Planting  of  shade  trees.  Value  of  different  shade 
trees. 


2l8      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(d)  Pruning  and  care  of  trees.    Use  of  seed  collected  in 
the  fall. 

(e)  The  wild  cherry.     Flower  and  fruit.     Food  for  birds. 
(/)    Insects  hurtful  to  fruit  trees  and  shade  trees.     Leaf 

crumpler,  moths,  tent-caterpillar.     Gall  nuts. 
References. 

Three  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees.    Farmers'  Bul- 
letin, No.  99. 

The  Apple  and  How  to   Grow  It.      Farmers'   Bul- 
letin, No.  113. 

The  Common  Trees  (Stokes). 
The  Nursery  Book  (Bailey). 

FALL  TERM.  —  SIXTH  GRADE 

1.  Review  and  continuation  of  spring  studies,     (a)  The 
forest  trees.     Nuts  and  fruits  in  the  fall.     Leaf  coloration 
and   leaf  fall;  calendar.     Collect  and  tabulate  changes  in 
foliage.     Season's  growth  of  different   kinds   of  trees;  of 
hardwoods  and  evergreens. 

(b)  Bees  in  the  fall.     Late  blossoms  visited.     Store   of 
honey  for  winter.     Changes  in  the  life  of  the  hive. 
References. 

Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States  (Apgar). 

Our  Native  Trees  (Keeler). 

The  Oak  (Ward). 

Bee-keeping.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  59. 

2.  Pure  water,     (a)  The  water  supply  of  houses.     Wells 
and  their  dangers.    Bored  wells.  Springs.     Cisterns.   Former 
epidemics.     Cholera. 

(£)  City  water  supplies.     Dangers  of  contamination. 

(c)  Diseases    springing    from     impure    water.      Fevers. 
Diphtheria. 


THE    COURSE   OF    STUDY  2IQ 

(d)  Filters.     Distilled  water. 

(e)  Bacteria.     Their  propagation. 

(/)  Testing  water.     The  state  chemist. 

References. 

Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  (Baker). 
Popular  Readings  in  Science  (Gall  and  Robertson). 
School  Hygiene  (Shaw). 
Story  of  Germ  Life  (Conn). 

3.  The  farm,  (a)  The  cultivation  of  grains  and  grasses 
on  the  farm.  Proper  modes  of  cultivation.  Machines  used. 

(fr)  Soils.  Poor  and  rich  soils.  Rotation  of  crops.  Ex- 
haustion of  soils.  Value  of  clover  and  grasses.  Fertilizing 
with  manures  and  artificial  fertilizers.  The  effect  of  drain- 
age upon  soils  and  plants.  Laboratory  experiments  with 
soils. 

(<:)  Insect  pests  of  the  farmers :  chinch-bug ;  grass- 
hopper, Hessian  fly.  Scientific  methods  of  dealing  with 
pests. 

(d)  Feeding  and  fattening  of  farm  stock.  The  silo  as  a 
means  of  food  preservation  and  supply.  The  diseases  of 
farm  animals  and  their  treatment.  The  veterinary  surgeon. 

(<?)    The  value  of  science  to  the  farmer. 

(/)  The  agricultural  colleges  and  the  state  experiment 
stations.  Their  uses  to  the  farmer. 

References. 

The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat 
(C.  L.  Marlatt).  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  132. 
Government  Printing-office. 

The  Soil  (King). 

Silos  and  Silage,  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  32. 

The  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Seed.  Farmers'  Bul- 
letin, No.  in. 


22O      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

Practical  Agriculture  (James). 
Meadows  and  Pastures.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  66. 
Commercial  Fertilizers.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  44. 
Sewage  Disposal   on   the  Farm.      Farmers'   Bulletin, 

No.  43. 
Farm  Drainage.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  40. 

4.  The  pond  in    the  fall  (continued),    (a)    The   toad : 
life  history ;  its  food ;  uses  in  the  garden. 

(fr)  Fishes :  the  perch,  carp ;  life  histories ;  spawning ; 
food  of  fishes ;  mode  of  breathing  •  structure  and  organs  of 
the  fish.  The  flesh  of  fish. 

(c)  The  aquarium  for  fishes. 

(d)  Fish  laws  in  the  state. 

(<?)   The  fisheries  commission  at  Washington.     Stocking 
of  lakes  and  rivers  with  fish. 
References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life,  Chapter  XVI  (Hodge). 

Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams  (Furneaux). 

American  Food  and  Game  Fishes  (Jordan  and  others). 

5.  Temperance,    (a)  Beer.    Grains.    Fermentation.    The 
alcohol  in  beer. 

(&)    Wine.     Process  of  making  wine. 

(c)  Nature  of  alcohol.     Experiments. 

(d)  Cider  and  vinegar.     Hard  cider. 

(e)  Uses  of  fermented  liquors  and  their  effects. 
References. 

Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 
Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene  (Krohn). 
Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 

6.  Cooking,    (a)    Meats.     Value    of   different   meats   as 
food.     Proteids  and  their  muscle-building  service. 

(£)    Cooking  meats  :  boiling,  broiling,  and  roasting. 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  221 

(^)    Canned  meats  and  extracts. 
(</)    Soups  from  meats ;  their  value  as  foods. 
(e)    The  cooking  of  chickens,  turkeys,  and  ducks. 
(/)    Gravy  and  sauce  with  meats. 
References. 

Meats,    Composition   and   Cooking.      Farmers'  Bul- 
letin, No.  34. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 
Elements   of  the   Theory  and   Practice   of  Cookery 

(Williams  and  Fisher). 

The  Chemistry  of  Cleaning  and  Cooking  (Richards 
and  Elliott). 

7.  Visit  to  a  zoological  garden  as  a  preparation  for 
winter  studies.  A  topic  suitable  to  larger  cities,  (a)  The 
dens  of  wild  animals. 

(b)  The  aviary. 

(c)  The  fishes. 

(d)  The  serpent  house. 

WINTER  TERM.  —  SIXTH  GRADE 

i.  Coal  and  its  origin,  (a)  Nature  and  uses  of  coal. 
Specimens  examined.  Kind  of  coal. 

(b)  How  coal  was  formed  in  the  earth.  The  coal  strata. 
How  situated. 

(<:)   The  carbon  in  coal. 

(d)  Coal  gas ;    how  obtained ;  use ;  coke ;  dangers  from 
gas.     Natural  gas. 

(e)  Petroleum.     Various  by-products. 
References. 

The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal  (Martin). 

Coal  and  Coal  Mines  (Greene). 

The  Geological  Story  briefly  Told  (Dana). 


222      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

2.  Inventions  and  instruments,      (a)   Sewer  connection 
with   street.     Wash-basins.     Soil-pipe.     Traps.     Bathroom. 
Danger  of  sewer-gas.     Disinfectants. 

(ft)   The  hydrostatic  press.     Construction  and  value. 

(c)  The  steam-engine.     The  power  derived  from  steam. 
Its  various  uses. 

(d)  Fire-proof  constructions.     Brick  and  tile.     Asbestos. 
Paint. 

(e)  The  telescope  ;  construction  and  use.     Lenses. 

(f)  The  clock ;  pendulum. 

(g)  The  ice-making  machine. 

References. 

Handbook  of  Household  Science  (Youmans). 
Progress   of  Invention   in  the    Nineteenth    Century 

(Byrn). 

Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  (Baker). 
The  regular  text-books  on  Physics. 

3.  The  sun;  light  and  heat,     (a)  The  sun;  size  and  dis- 
tance and  relation  to  earth. 

(£)  Light.  Nature  of  light.  Undulations.  Speed  of 
movement.  Laws  of  light.  The  prism.  The  rainbow. 

(c)  Heat.  Heat  rays,  illustrated.  Effects  of  heat  upon 
soil,  rocks,  etc.  Effect  upon  the  atmosphere.  Effects  upon 
oceans,  lakes,  and  seas.  Plant  and  animal  life  dependent 
upon  the  sun. 

(//)   Heat  a  source  of  power. 

References. 

Story  of  the  Solar  System  (Chambers). 

Starland  (Ball). 

The  Sun  (Young). 

Tarr's  Physical  Geography. 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  223 

4.  The  digestive  system,     (a)   The   digestive  tract   as  a 
whole. 

(&)   Mastication ;  the  teeth ;  salivary  glands. 

(c)  The  stomach. 

(d)  Liver  and  pancreas. 

(e)  The  intestinal  digestion. 

(/)   The  relation  of  digestion  to  cooking. 
(g)   Effects  of  alcoholic  beverages  on  digestion. 
(h)   Temperance  and  moderation  in  eating  a  basis  of  good 
health. 

References. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  (Hutchinson). 
Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  (Huxley). 
The  Human  Body  (Newell). 
Other  text-books  on  Physiology. 

5.  Contagious  diseases,     (a)    Smallpox  and  vaccination. 
(£)   Diphtheria ;  antitoxin. 

(c)  Measles.      Whooping-cough.     Public  regulations   in 
schools. 

(d)  Disinfecting  rooms ;  best  means  used. 

(e)  Quarantining  by  city  and  state  or  nation.     Health 
officers.     State  board  of  health. 

References. 

School  Hygiene  (Shaw). 

School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  (Burrage  and  Bailey). 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 

6.  The  study  of  wild  animals  (continuation),     (a)   The 
zoological  garden  (in  cities). 

(£)   The  school  "  zoo  "  and  home  pets. 
(<r)    Hunting  and  large  game  in  Africa.     Elephants,  lions, 
ostrich,  antelope,  giraffe. 


224      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(d)  Homes  and  habits  of  these  wild  animals  in  the  wild 
state. 

(e)  Books  of  travel,  adventure,  and  description. 

References. 

Wild  Neighbors  (Ingersoll). 

Story  of  the  Red  Deer  (Fortescue). 

Wilderness  Ways  (Long). 

Natural  History  in  Anecdote  (Miles). 

Stories  of  Animal  Life  (Holder). 

Wild  Animals  I  have  known  (Seton). 

7.  Eyes  and  ears,  (a)  Structure  and  parts  of  the  eye. 
Modes  of  testing  the  vision.  Frequency  of  weak  or  defec- 
tive eyes. 

(ft)   Value  and  use  of  glasses.     The  field  glass. 

(c)    Necessity  of  consulting  specialists,  as  oculists. 

(</)  Structure  of  the  ear  for  receiving  sound.  Defective 
ears  and  hearing. 

(e)    Instruments  to  aid  hearing. 

(/)  State  institutions  for  the  care  and  education  of  the 
deaf  and  blind.  Learning  to  read,  write,  and  talk. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 

Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  (Huxley). 

Other  physiology  text-books. 

School  Hygiene  (Shaw). 

School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  (Burrage  and  Bailey). 

SPRING  TERM.  —  SIXTH  GRADE 

i.  Workers  in  the  Soil,  (a)  Ants;  their  social  habits, 
nests,  food,  and  burrowing. 

(3)   The   earthworm.      Its    life   history;    structure    and 


THE   COURSE    OF   STUDY  225 

organs.      Darwin  as  a  student  of  the   earthworm.      Value 
of  the  earthworm  to  agriculture  and  plant  life. 

(c)    Burrowing  animals  :  mole,  ground  hog. 
References. 

The  Action  of  Earthworms  in  the  Formation  of  Vege- 
table Mould  (Darwin). 
Worms  and  Crustacea  (Hyatt). 
Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps  (Lubbock). 

2.  The  flower  garden,     (a)   The  school  flower  garden. 
Transplanting  wild  flowers.     The   garden   flowers :  nastur- 
tium, salvia,  tulip,  roses,  honeysuckle,  carnation,  petunia. 

(<£)   The  home  garden. 

(c)  Ferns  and  a  fernery.     Spores  and  modes  of  propaga- 
tion.    Mosses  and  lichens. 

(d)  Climbing  vines.     Ampelopsis   or  Virginia  creeper. 
English  ivy. 

(e)  Foliage  plants. 

(/)   Insects  damaging  flower  gardens.    Plant  lice.   Treat- 
ment of  plants. 
References. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Bailey). 
Garden    Making,     Suggestions    for    utilizing    Home 
Grounds  (Bailey). 

3.  The  ventilation  of  a   house,     (a)   The  chimney  and 
fireplace  as  a  means  of  ventilation. 

(ft)  Plans  of  ventilating  the  schoolhouse.  Furnace 
ventilation.  Ventilating  fans.  The  circulation  of  fresh  and 
foul  air. 

(c)  The  need  of  fresh  air  in  a  building.  The  lungs  and 
breathing.  Deep  breathing.  Ventilation  of  sleeping  rooms. 
Effects  of  exercise  upon  breathing.  Running,  ball  playing, 
gymnastics,  etc. 


226      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(d)  Danger  of  tight  houses.  Bad  effects  of  poorly  venti. 
lated  schoolhouses.  The  danger  of  drafts  from  windows 
and  doors. 

References. 

School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  (Burrage  and  Bailey). 
Handbook  of  Household  Science  (Youmans). 

4.  Instruments  and  inventions,    (a)   The  lift-pump.    Air 
pressure.    Valves  and  mechanism  of  the  pump.     The  force- 
pump. 

(£)   The  microscope  ;  its  important  uses. 
(c)   The  siphon  and  its  uses. 

References. 

Outlines  of  Physics  (Nichols). 
Physics  for  Grammar  School  (Harrington). 
Elements  of  Physics  (Rowland  and  Ames). 
Other  text-books  in  Physics. 

5.  The  atmosphere,    (a)   The  nature  of  the  atmosphere. 
Its  parts.     Its  constituent  elements.     Experiments. 

(&)   Extent  and  weight  of  the  air. 

(f)    Relation  of  the  atmosphere  to  heat  and  its  absorp- 
tion, to  sound,  to  animal  life ;  to  man ;  to  rain  and  moisture. 
(  d)   The  winds  and  their  cause. 

References. 

The  Ocean  of  Air  (Giberae). 
Text-books  in  Physics. 

6.  The  spring  birds    nesting  about  houses    and  barns, 
(a)   The    swallow;  nesting    habits,  insect  eaters,  catching 
insects  on  the  wing. 

(b)  The  chimney-swift  and  its  home  in  chimneys.  Its 
value  as  an  insect  destroyer. 


THE   COURSE    OF   STUDY  227 

(<r)  The  house  wren  and  other  house-seeking  birds. 
Wren  houses. 

(V)  The  bat ;  its  peculiar  structure,  organs,  and  habits. 
Its  service  as  an  insect  catcher.  A  mammal. 

(e)  How  to  encourage  the  birds  to  nest  about  the  houses, 
lawns,  etc. 

References. 

Birds,  their  Nests  and  Eggs  (Ingersoll). 
Birds  and  Bees  (Burroughs). 
Birds  of  the  Eastern  United  States  (Chapman). 
Birds  of  Village  and  Field  (Merriam). 
Birds  of  the  United  States  (Apgar). 

FALL  TERM.  —  SEVENTH  GRADE 

i.  The  care  and  management  of  a  grove  or  forest, 
(a)  Review  of  previous  tree  studies.  Kinds  of  trees, 
leaves,  bark.  Seedlings.  Leaf  coloration.  Light  relations 
among  trees. 

(£)  The  renewal  of  forests  from  year  to  year.  Natural 
seeding  and  growth  of  seedlings.  Scattering  of  seeds  by 
wind,  birds,  and  animals.  How  man  may  help  nature  in 
planting  seeds. 

(c}  How  the  forest  trees  are  injured  or  destroyed.  Wind 
and  storms.  Forest  fires.  Insects,  as  bark  beetles  and  tus- 
sock moth.  The  value  of  ichneumon-flies  to  trees.  Borers, 
leaf-crumplers.  Injury  of  trees  by  rabbits,  squirrels,  sheep, 
and  cattle.  Mosses,  lichens,  and  parasites.  Forces  of 
decay  in  the  forest.  Mould,  insects,  bacteria,  moisture, 
and  weather. 

(d)  The  cultivation  of  a  forest.  Value  of  different  trees. 
Length  of  time  required  for  producing  useful  trees  of  com- 
mon kinds. 


228      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(<?)  Lands  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  forests.  The 
profit  of  cultivating  forests. 

(/)  The  United  States  division  of  forestry.  Its  efforts  to 
protect  and  encourage  forestry  in  the  United  States. 

References. 

A  First  Book  of  Forestry  (Roth). 

Primer  of  Forestry  (Pinchot). 

Forestry  for  Farmers.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  67. 

Our  Native  Trees  (Keeler). 

Trees  of  the  United  States  (Apgar). 

2.  Insect  life  in  the  pond.     Visits  to  the  pond.     (Review 
of  earlier  studies.)     (a)   Giant  water  beetle.      Mode   of 
moving,  breathing,  feeding,  etc. 

(fr)  Dragon-flies.  Damsel  flies.  Study  of  their  beautiful 
form  and  coloring. 

(f)  Caddis  flies.  Feeding  upon  plants.  Changes  and 
habits. 

(d)  An  aquarium.      Its  construction  and  use  in  insect 
study. 

(e)  Life  histories  of  these  insects  and  their  adaptation  to 
environment. 

References. 

The  Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Insects  (Miall). 

Life   in   an  Aquarium.      Cornell  Teachers'    Leaflets 

(Rogers)  No.  n. 
Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams  (Furneaux). 

3.  Butterflies  and  moths.     Review  of  earlier  studies  of 
cabbage  butterfly,  etc.     (a)   The  milkweed  butterfly.     Life 
history.     Metamorphosis,  egg,  larva,  chrysalis,  and  butterfly. 
Its  wings,  mouth  organs,  food,  migrations.     Collection  and 
comparison  of  other  butterflies. 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  22Q 

(b)  The  moths.     The  cecropia  and  its  life  history,  meta- 
morphosis, etc.     Nocturnal  habits.      The  harmful  moths  in 
the  household.     How  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  moths  in 
clothing. 

References. 

Insect  Life  (Comstock). 
Butterflies  (Scudder). 
The  Milkweed  Butterfly  (Scudder). 
Moths  and  Butterflies  (Ballard). 

4.  Cyclonic  storms,     (a)   Highs  and  lows  and  the  circu- 
lation of  the  air. 

(fr)  The  movement  of  a  cyclonic  storm  in  its  general 
course.  Predictions  of  storms. 

(c)  Use  of  weather   maps   showing  the  movement  of 
cyclonic  storms. 

(d)  National  weather  bureau.     Signals  and  weather  re- 
ports.    Effects  upon  sailors,  farmers,  and  railroads. 

(<?)  The  barometer.  Its  construction  and  use.  The 
rain  gauge. 

References. 

Elementary  Meteorology  (Waldo). 
About  the  Weather  (Harrington). 

5.  Fire  and  the  process  of  combustion.     Review  of  pre- 
vious topics.     Uses  of  fire,     (a)   Early  modes  of  producing 
fire  by  friction.     The  old  myths  about  fire.     Prometheus. 

(£)  The  light  of  a  candle.  Explanation.  Parts  of  the 
flame. 

(<r)  Oxygen  and  combustion.  The  wood  fire.  Experi- 
ments. Results  of  combustion. 

(d)  Things  which  are  combustible,  as  wood,  coal,  oil,  gas. 

(e)  Spontaneous  combustion. 


23O      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(/)  Dangers  from  fire.  Modes  of  prevention.  Fire-proof 
construction.  Asbestos. 

(g)  Sources  of  heat  in  the  sun.  How  stored  up  in 
vegetation. 

References. 

How  a  Candle  Burns.      Cornell  Teachers'  Leaflets, 
No.  2.     Text-books  in  physics. 

6.  Value  of  various  gymnastic  exercises,  (a)  Bodily 
measurements  and  tests.  The  value  of  expert  trainers  and 
instructors. 

(b)  Chief  forms  of  useful  exercise  and  their  value. 

(c)  Value  of  moderate,  systematic  exercise  at  home,  at 
school. 

(d)  Training  to  strengthen  special  organs.     The  lungs 
and  chest.     Building  up  of  weak  parts. 

(e)  A  gymnasium.     Uses  of  different  apparatus. 
(/)   The  ideal  of  a  strong,  healthy  body. 

(g)  Ideas  of  different  races  in  regard  to  physical  educa- 
tion :  Greeks,  English,  Germans. 

(h)    Influences  in  cities  tending  to  physical  deterioration. 

(i)  Historical  illustrations  of  physical  training  and 
health  experts. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 
The  Human  Body  (Newell). 
Physiology  and  Hygiene  (Hutchinson). 

WINTER  TERM.  —  SEVENTH  GRADE 

i.  Distilled  liquors,  (a)  Whiskey  and  brandy.  The  bad 
effects  of  drunkenness.  Tastes  and  habits  formed  by  mod- 
erate drinking.  Loss  of  self-control. 


THE   COURSE   OF    STUDY  23! 

(b)  Evil  effects  of  distilled  liquors  on  health  and  the  ner- 
vous system. 

(c)  Testimony  of  physicians.     Whiskey  and  brandy  not 
now  used  so  much  by  physicians. 

(d)  Railroads  and  insurance  companies  and  their  require- 
ments.   Danger  of  employing  drinking  men  in  places  of 
responsibility. 

References. 

Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene  (Krohn). 

Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 

2.  The  kitchen  and  cooking,     (a)  Bread-making.    Re- 
view of  previous  studies.     Whole  wheat  bread. 

(b)  The  chemistry  of  bread-making.    Yeast;  its  nature 
and  effects.     Bacteria. 

(c)  Baking-powder ;  good  and  bad.     Baking-powder  bis- 
cuit.    Cream  of  tartar. 

(</)  Cake- making.     Pastries,  pies.     Pastries  too  rich  and 
not  easily  digested. 

(e)  Salads.    Healthfulness  and  economy  of  salads.    Kinds 
and  preparation  of  salads.     Oil. 

(/)  The  dining  room.     Furnishing  and  decoration. 

References. 

Handbook  of  Domestic  Science,  Chapters  VIII  and  X 

(Wilson). 

Bread  and  Bread-making.    Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  112. 
The  Chemistry  of  Cookery  (Williams). 
Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 

3.  Descriptions  of  remarkable  vegetation,     (a)  Forests  of 
California.    Selvas  of  Amazon.    The  bamboo.    The  banyan 
tree. 


232      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(b)  Fruit-producing  trees :  cocoanut,  banana,  breadfruit, 
olive,  fig,  date,  palm,  etc. 

(c)  Desert  vegetation  in  America,  Asia,  and  Africa :  cac- 
tus, prickly  pear,  eucalyptus. 

(</)  Plant  and  animal  life  in  the  sea. 

References. 

The  Plant  World  (Vincent). 

A  Reader  in  Botany  (Newell). 

The  Wonders  of  Plant  Life  (Herrick). 

4.  The  sick  room.     Healthful  conditions,     (a)  Fresh  air 
and  ventilation.     Sunshine. 

(f)  Cleanliness  and  neatness.     Keeping  dust  from  furni- 
ture and  floor. 

(c)  Bedding  and  clothing  of  patient. 

(d)  Cheerfulness,   flowers,   etc.     Remove  faded   flowers 
and  supply  fresh  water  daily. 

(e)  Visitors  and  conversation. 

(/)  Trained  nurses.    The  importance  of  intelligent  nurs- 
ing. 

References. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 
Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 

5.  The  heart  and  circulation.     Review  of  earlier  studies 
in  physiology  and  animal  life,     (a)  The  heart  and  its  struc- 
ture, relation  to  veins  and  arteries.     Nature  of  the  blood. 

(ft)  The  arteries.    The  veins.    The  capillaries.    The  pulse 
and  flow  of  the  blood.     Circulation  in  the  frog's  foot. 

(c)  Building  up  of  tissues   by  the   blood.     Removal   of 
waste. 

(d)  Relation  of  the  blood  to  digestion  and   respiration. 
Mutual  dependence  of  the  vital  organs  upon  one  another. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  233 

(<?)  Effects  of  exercise  upon  heart  action. 

(f)  The  effect  of  alcoholic  stimulants  upon  the  heart. 

References. 

Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  (Huxley). 
Physiology  and  Hygiene  (Hutchinson). 
The  Human  Body  (Newell). 
How  to  Keep  Well  (Blaisdell). 

6.  Inventions  and  machines,     (a)  Electric   bells.    The 
battery  and  the  electric  current. 

(£)  Electric  telegraph  and  the  system  of  telegraphy. 

(c)  History  of  the  telegraph.     The  life  of  Morse. 

(d)  The  Atlantic  cable  and  the  work  of  Field. 

(e)  Commercial  changes  produced  by  the  use  of  the  tele- 
graph.    Other  effects  upon  newspapers  and  political  life. 

References. 

Outlines  of  Physics,  an  Elementary  Text-book  for  Sec- 
ondary Schools  (Nichols). 

Other  text- books  in  Physics  :  — 

The  Story  of  Electricity  (Monro). 
The  Progress  of  Inventions  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury (Byrn). 

7.  Medicines.      Review   of  earlier  topics.      (a)   Useful 
medicines.   Common  ones :    quinine,  Pond's  extract,  laxa- 
tives.    External   applications;    treatment    of  wounds   and 
accidental  injuries. 

(£)  The  prevention  of  disease ;  by  proper  diet,  clothing, 
avoidance  of  exposure,  and  exercise. 

(c)  Patent  medicines.     Large  amount  of  alcohol  in  many 
patent  medicines. 

(d)  Poisons   and   antidotes    and   their    occasional    use. 
Danger  to  children. 


234      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(e)  The  advice  of  physicians  needed  before  taking 
medicines. 

(/)  The  folly  of  trusting  quacks  and  nostrums. 

References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 
Text-books  of  Physiology. 

SPRING  TERM.  —  SEVENTH  GRADE 

1.  Musical  instruments,      (a)  The  tuning-fork.     Vibra- 
tions and  sound. 

(Z>)  The  violin.  The  vibrations  of  a  string.  The  manu- 
facture of  violins.  The  masters. 

(c)  The  bell.    Tones  and  overtones.     Famous  bells. 

(d)  The  piano.    The   construction   of  a  piano.     Great 
musicians.     The  pipe-organ.     The  orchestra. 

(e)  The  horn,  drum,  and  other  musical  instruments. 

(/)  The  human  voice;  vocal  chords.  The  common 
musical  scale. 

(g)  The  various  uses  of  music  in  theatres,  churches, 
homes. 

(h)  The  human  ear.  Its  structure  and  adaptation  to 
sound. 

References. 

Sound,  a  Series  of  Simple  Experiments  (Mayer). 
Text- books  on  Physics  and  Physiology. 

2.  The  protection  of  garden  plants,  fruit  trees,  and  shade 
trees  from  harmful  insects,     (a)  Review  of  apple  and  peach 
tree,  codling  moth  and  apple-tree  borers,  tent-caterpillar, 
cutworms.     Insect  eaters,  as  woodpeckers,  chickadee,  nut- 
hatch, etc.     Insect  pests  on  the  farm  j  chinch-bug ;  grass- 
hoppers, etc. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  235 

(3)  Life  histories  of  the  rose  beetle,  cankerworm,  the 
apple  maggot,  apple-leaf  crumpler,  plant  lice,  the  scale 
insects. 

(c)  Mildews  and  moulds  on  fruit  trees  and  garden  plants. 

(d)  Modes  of  destroying  the  various  pests  by  protecting 
swallows,  bats,  woodpeckers,  meadow-larks,  and  other  insect 
eaters,  also  by  the  use  of  sprays  and  poisons. 

(e)  Spraying  compounds  and  their  value.     Machines  and 
contrivances  for  spraying. 

References. 

Nature    Study  and  Life,  Chapters    XII   and    XIII 

(Hodge). 

The  Spraying  of  Plants  (Lodeman). 
Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits  (Saunders). 
Injurious  Insects  of  Farm  and  Garden  (Treat). 

3.  The  earth  and  other  planets,  (a)  Review  of  earlier 
studies  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  and  constellations. 

(£)  The  earth  and  its  path  round  the  sun.  The  plane 
of  the  ecliptic.  Corresponding  paths  of  other  planets.  The 
series  of  planets  and  distance  from  the  sun.  Note  planets 
visible  evening  or  morning. 

(c]  The  moon  and  its  changes  during  four  weeks.  Its 
value  as  a  light  giver  and  its  influence  upon  the  tides. 
What  is  known  about  the  moon  and  conditions  upon  its 
surface. 

(*/)  Eclipses  of  sun  and  moon,  and  how  produced. 

(e)  The  sun  as  the  centre  of  the  solar  system. 

References. 

The  Story  of  the  Earth  (Seeley). 

The  Story  of  the  Solar  System  (Chambers). 

Starland  (Ball). 


236      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

4.  Bacteria,     (a]  Modes  of  studying  bacteria.     Recent 
advances  in  study  of  bacteria.     Value  of  microscope. 

(fr)  Pasteur  and  his  experiments.     Fermentation.     Wines. 

(f)  Useful  bacteria  and  their  important  service  in  many 
ways. 

(d)  Bacteria  and  disease.  Changes  in  medical  treatment 
due  to  a  study  of  bacteria. 

(<?)  The  lesson  of  cleanliness  as  taught  by  the  study  of 
bacteria. 

References. 

The  Story  of  Germ  Life  (Conn). 

Louis  Pasteur :    his  Life  and  Labors  (Hamilton). 

Popular  Readings  in  Science  (Gall  and  Robertson). 

5.  The  English  sparrow,      (a)  Importation  to  America 
and  history  of  its  conquest  of  America. 

(b)  Its   good   and   bad   qualities.      Habits;   relation  to 
other  birds ;   quarrelsomeness.     Nesting   habits,  food,  and 
relation  to  weed  seeds  and  insect  pests. 

(f)  Study  of  bird   structure  as  typified  by  the   English 
sparrow.     Bony  structure,  feathers,  bill,  feet. 
(d)  Means  of  getting  rid  of  the  English  sparrow. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 
Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology  (Needham). 
The  English  Sparrow.     Bulletin. 

6.  Life   history  of  the  oak.    (a)   Spring  blossoms  and 
leaves.     The  sprouting  and  growth  of  the  acorn. 

(£)  Uses  of  the  bark,  roots,  leaves,  and  stem  in  the 
growth  of  the  tree.  The  flow  of  sap ;  work  of  the  leaves 
and  sunlight. 

(c)  The  rings  of  growth  as  shown  by  a  cross-section  of 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  23 / 

the  trunk.     Collect  specimens  and  compare  with  the  rings 
of  growth  in  other  trees. 

(d)  Insects  which  house  in  the  bark  and  leaves  of  the 
oak.     Gall  nuts.     Squirrels. 

(e)  The  uses  of  the  oak  to  man ;  lumber ;  bark ;  shade ; 
mast. 

(/)   Long  period  of  the  oak's  life.     Famous  historical 
specimens. 

References. 

Leaves  and  Acorns  of  our  Common  Oaks  (Wyman). 

Cornell  Teachers'  Leaflets. 
The  Oak  (Ward). 

FALL  TERM. — EIGHTH  GRADE 

1.  Classification  of  Trees,     (a)   The  hard  wood  forests. 
Review  of  chief  groups. 

(b)   Evergreen  forests. 
(V)   Tropical  forests. 

(d)  Forest  preservation. 

(e)  The  Department  of  Forestry.    Government  preserves. 
Forest  fires.     Exploitation  of  forests  by  lumber  companies. 

2.  The  rocks  and  rock  strata.     Review  of  earlier  studies. 
Rock  decay ;  kinds,  etc.    (a)    Collections  of  rocks  to  illus- 
trate the  chief  classes  of  rocks,  soil,  sands,  etc. 

(b)  Stratified  rocks  :  how  produced  and  the  long  history 
they  suggest. 

(c)  Igneous  rocks.     Volcanic  action  and  internal  heat  of 
the  earth. 

(d)  Chief  periods  in  geological  history. 

(e)  Excursions  to  study  local  geological  forms  and  history. 
Review  of  the  ice  age. 


238      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

(/)  Kinds  of  stone  used  for  building  purposes,  for  statu- 
ary, monuments,  etc. 

References. 

Town  Geology  (Kingsley). 
Outlines  of  Field  Geology  (Geike). 
The  Story  of  the  Earth  (Seeley). 
First  Book  in  Geology  (Shaler). 

3.  Game  birds,    (a)  Partridge.     Its  habits  and  life  his- 
tory.    Its  protective  coloring.     Its  flight. 

(ft)    Prairie  chicken.     Its  home  in  the  grain  fields. 
(c)    The  wild  pigeon.     The  great  flocks  once  seen. 
(</)    Game  laws  and  protection  of  game.    Nesting  seasons. 
The  danger  of  exterminating  our  game  birds. 

References. 

Protection  of  Birds  and  Game  (Directory  of  State 
Officials  and  Organizations  for  1901,  Circular  No. 
33,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture). 

Information  concerning  Game,  Seasons,  Shipment, 
and  Sale  (Circular  No.  31,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  1900). 

Citizen  Bird  (Wright  and  Coues).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Interesting  and  well  illustrated. 

4.  The  essentials  of  a  good  dwelling  house,  as  based  upon 
scientific  knowledge,    (a)    Healthful  location,  with  healthful 
surroundings.    Materials  best  suited  for  sanitary  construction. 

(&)  Dry,  clean  cellar.  Cemented  floors  and  walls.  A 
coal,  fruit,  and  vegetable  cellar. 

(c)  Plumbing  and  sewer  connections.  Soil  pipe.  Bath- 
room. Laundry. 


THE    COURSE   OF   STUDY  239 

(d)  Kitchen  equipment :  sink,  pantry,  refrigerator,  cook- 
ing outfit,  laundry. 

(e)  Ventilation  by  flues  and  circulation  of  fresh  air. 

(/)  Safe  construction  against  fire.  Flues,  tile  lined. 
Furnaces,  or  heating  plant. 

(g)  Pure  water.  The  sources.  Kind  of  pipes.  Filters, 
cisterns,  wells,  etc. 

(<£)  Gas  and  electric  lights.  Piping  and  wiring.  Danger 
from  gas  and  electric  wiring. 

(*)  Cleanliness  by  means  of  soap,  disinfectants,  sunlight. 
Proper  neatness  and  care  in  sick  room. 

(/)    Electric  bells,  telephones,  and  wiring. 

(k)  Library.  Standard  books  in  history,  science,  and 
literature. 

(/)  House  decoration :  paper,  frescos,  pictures,  and  fine 
art. 

(m)  Locks.  Safe ;  for  safety  deposit,  for  business  papers, 
silver,  jewels.  Vaults  in  banks. 

(«)    Flower  garden  and  conservatory. 

(o)   Piano  and  musical  instruments. 

(/)    A  workshop  with  tools. 

References. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 
School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  (Burrage  and  Bailey). 

6.  Interesting  inventions  in  printing,  (a)  A  rotary  steam 
printing  press.  The  speed  and  quantity  of  work  done.  Labor 
saving. 

(&)  The  linotype  machine.  The  effect  of  this  machine 
on  printing. and  labor. 

(c)  Electroplating.  An  application  of  chemistry  and 
electricity. 


24O      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(</)  Historical  development  of  printing.  Gutenberg. 
Franklin.  Later  inventors. 

References. 

Progress   of   Invention   in  the   Nineteenth   Century 

(Byrn). 
The  Wonders  of  Modern  Mechanism  (Cochrane). 

7.  Alcoholism  and  opium,  (a)  Review  of  previous 
studies  of  alcoholic  drinks. 

(£)  Evil  effects  of  the  liquor  traffic  upon  homes  and 
upon  society.  Amount  of  crime  caused  by  drunkenness. 
Great  waste  of  money  in  the  sale  and  use  of  alcoholic 
drinks. 

(c)   The  important  and  legitimate  uses  of  alcohol. 

(V)  Opium,  the  sources  of  opium.  Its  use  and  demoral- 
izing effects. 

(<?)  The  relation  of  the  government  to  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics. 

References. 

Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene  (Krohn). 

Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Blaisdell). 

WINTER  TERM.  —  EIGHTH  GRADE 

i.  Respiration.  Review  and  general  survey  of  the  vital 
organs,  (a)  The  lungs  and  their  structure  and  function. 
Breathing  in  lower  animals  and  in  man. 

(<£)  Relation  of  lungs  to  circulation  of  blood.  Purifica- 
tion of  the  blood  in  the  lungs. 

(c)  Causes  of  weak  lungs.  Fresh  air  and  deep  breath- 
ing. Increase  of  lung  capacity.  Exercise  and  its  effects. 

(ff)    Lung  diseases  and  their  prevention. 


THE    COURSE   OF    STUDY  24! 

(e)    Consumption  as  a  germ  disease  and  modes  of  pre- 
venting its  spread.     Modes  of  isolating  it.     Pneumonia. 
(/)    The  stethoscope, 
(g")   Influence  of  climate  on  lung  trouble. 
References. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  live  (Blaisdell). 
The  Human  Body  (Newell). 

2.  Scientific  cleanliness  in  surgery.     Review  of  sick  room. 
(a)   The  operating  room  and  its  equipment. 

(b)  Bacteria    and   their    danger,   and   provision   against 
them.     The  instruments,  bandages,  sterilizing,  hands,  and 
cloths. 

(c)  Antiseptics  and  disinfectants  and   their  use  by  sur- 
geons and  nurses. 

(d)  Anaesthetics  and  their  value  in  surgery.     Great  im- 
provement in  modern  surgery. 

(e)  Results  of  scientific  care,  cleanliness,  and  scientific 
skill  in  dealing  with  surgical  cases. 

(/)   Suggestions  as  to  care  in  accidental  cuts,  wounds,  and 
sores.     Blood  poisoning. 

(g)   Great  importance  of  hospitals  and  their  work. 

3.  The  brain  and  nervous  system.     The  brain  the  seat  of 
control  and  of  intelligence,    (a)  The  brain  and  its  structure. 
Its  protection  by  the  cranium. 

(&)    Afferent  and  efferent  nerves  and  their  different  uses. 

(c)   Control  of  the  body  through  the  nerves. 

(d7)    Derangement  of  the  nervous  system. 

(e)    Effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  on  the  nerves  and  brain. 

(/)    General  conditions  of  a  healthy  body. 

References. 

Applied  Physiology  (Overton). 

Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  (Huxley). 


242      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

4.  The  electric  light,     (a)  The  battery  and  the  electric 
current. 

(b)  The  light ;  how  produced. 

(c)  Edison  and  his  experiments. 

References. 

The  Story  of  Electricity  (Monro).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Elements  of  Physics  (Rowland  and  Ames). 
Lessons  in  Electricity  (Tyndall).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Other  text-books  of  Physics. 

5.  Scientific  modes  of  extracting  and  using  the  metals, 
(a)   Assaying  and  its  value  in  mining  operations. 

(&)   Smelting  of  ores.    The  uses  of  quicksilver.    The  re- 
duction of  low-grade  ores. 

(c)  The  blast  furnace  and  the  production  of  pig-iron. 

(d)  Steel  production.    The  Bessemer  process.    The  vari- 
ous uses  of  steel. 

(e)  Aluminum.     Its  production  and  use. 

References. 

Experimental  Science  (Hopkins). 

The  Chemistry  of  Common  Life  (Johnston). 

6.  A  vestibuled  train,  a  product  of  scientific  invention.     A 
varied  application  of  science  to  life,      (a)   A  house  with 
heating,  lighting,  ventilation. 

(fr)   Kitchen  and  cooking.     Dining  car. 

(c)  Sleeping  rooms.     Smoking  rooms.     Lavatories. 

(d)  Danger  of  wrecks. 

(e)  Steam  brakes.    Automatic  coupling.     Economy  and 
life-saving  devices. 

(/)   Steam-engine.     Mode  of  applying  power  in  a  loco- 
motive engine. 

(g)    Car  building,  architecture,  and  decoration. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  243 

(fi)  The  engineer ;  his  responsibility.  His  control  of  the 
train.  The  necessity  for  skill  and  watchfulness. 

References. 

The  Wonders  of  Modern  Mechanism  (Cochrane). 

7.  The  adulteration  of  foods.  Review  of  previous  study 
of  foods  and  drinks,  (a)  Modes  of  food  adulteration,  as 
in  the  case  of  butter,  flour,  sugar,  oil,  canned  fruits,  wines, 
whiskeys,  milk,  candies,  coffee.  Tests  of  food  adulteration. 

(b)  The   profit   from  food  adulteration  and  the  extent 
of  it. 

(V)  Necessity  for  government  inspection  and  strict  laws. 
Inspection  of  meats  to  prevent  the  sale  of  diseased  meats, 
scientific  knowledge  needed. 

(d)  Modes  of  food  preservation.  Canning,  drying,  cold 
storage,  refrigerator  cars  and  ships.  The  refrigerator  in 
houses.  Value  of  ice.  Dangers. 

References. 

The  Care  of  Milk.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  63. 
Sugar  as  Food.     Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  93. 
Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 
Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  (Baker). 

SPRING  TERM.  —  EIGHTH  GRADE 

i.  The  hothouse  and  its  equipment,  (a)  The  exotics  in 
a  hothouse.  Adaptation  to  warm  climate.  Heating. 

(£)  The  flora  of  the  tropics  as  reproduced  in  the  hot- 
houses. 

(c)  The  flora  of  desert  and  arid  regions.     Cacti,  century 
plant. 

(d)  Excursions  to  hothouses  to  study  modes  of  treating 
hothouse  plants. 


244      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(e)  Diseases  of  plants  in  hothouses.  Bees  in  hothouses 
for  cross-fertilization. 

(/)   The  propagation  of  plants  in  a  hothouse. 

References. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Bailey). 

2.  The  warblers.     The  myrtle,  summer,  palm,  Blackburn- 
ian,  black  and  white  creeping,  black  throated  blue. 

(a)    Place  of  warblers   among  the  families  of  perching 
birds.     Elementary  classification  of  birds. 
(£)   The  food  of  the  warblers. 

(c)  The  food  of  other  birds.     Study  of  birds'  stomachs  to 
determine  their  food. 

(d)  Experiments  and  reports  of  the  government.     Useful 
and  hurtful  birds  to  farmers,  fruit-growers,  etc. 

(e)  False  conclusions  reached  by  gardeners,  farmers,  and 
fruit-growers  in  regard  to  the  good  and  harm  done  by  birds. 
Necessity  for  science. 

References. 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Hodge). 

First  Book  of  Birds  (Miller). 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  II,  "Birds,"  (Lockwood). 

Birds  of  the  Village  and  Field  (Merriam). 

3.  Landscape  gardening.     Review   of    earlier    tree   and 
flower  study,     (a)    Suitable  trees,  bushes,  foliage  plants,  and 
flowers  for  planting  on  lawns. 

(fi)  Plan  of  laying  out  lawns,  parks,  and  gardens.  Color 
effects.  Useful  trees  and  plants  in  forest,  field,  and  nursery. 

(<:)  Best  season  for  planting  trees,  bushes.  Review  of 
nursery  and  tree  planting. 

(*/)  Visits  to  well-kept  lawns  and  parks  to  observe  plans 
and  effects. 


THE   COURSE   OF   STUDY  245 

References. 

Garden    Making,    Suggestions    for    utilizing    Home 
Grounds   (Bailey). 

4.  Fossils  in  the  rocks.     Review  of  rocks  and  rock  strata. 
(a)   Collection  of  fossils.     Phosphates  in  the  soil  and  their 
value. 

(£)   The  history  of  extinct  animal  life. 
(f)   Coral  reefs  and  their  history. 

(d)  The   geological   survey.     Its   history.     Relation  of 
geological  survey  to  agriculture  and  mining. 

(e)  Visits  to  museums  where  fossil  remains  and  casts  are 
seen. 

(/)    Famous  discoveries  of  fossil  remains. 

References. 

First  Book  in  Geology  (Shaler). 
The  Earth  and  its  Story  (Heilprin). 

5.  The  kitchen  and  cooking.     Review  of  earlier  lessons 
on  foods  and  cooking,    (a)   The  preparation,  use,  and  cook- 
ing of  fruits.     The  preservation  of  fruits. 

(ti)  The  analysis  of  the  food  stuff  in  vegetables,  fruits, 
and  meats. 

(c)  The  essentials  of  a  healthful  diet.    Common  faults  of 
cooking  and  dieting. 

(d)  The  value  of  science  in  determining  the  value  of 
foods  and  methods  of  cooking. 

References. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Wilson). 
Handbook  of  Household  Science  (Youmans). 

6.  Photography,     (a)   History  of  photography. 


246      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

(£)  The  camera ;  its  construction  and  use.  Materials  and 
processes  of  photography. 

(f)  Importance  of  photography  in  practical  life  and  in 
science. 

References. 

Photography,  Indoors  and  Out  (Black).    Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co. 
The  Story  of  Photography  (A.  T.  Story). 


CHAPTER  X 

BOOKS   AS    AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING 

PERHAPS  the  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  good  science 
work  in  the  grades  is  the  poverty  of  science  knowledge  on 
the  part  of  teachers.  It  is  not  a  fault  with  which  teachers 
are  to  be  upbraided  so  much  as  a  natural  result  of  our  usual 
course  of  study  in  the  past.  Even  what  science  knowledge 
teachers  have  acquired  in  high  schools  and  other  advanced 
courses  of  study  is  not  only  inadequate,  but  often  unsuitable 
to  the  instruction  of  children.  In  all  the  higher  schools 
there  is,  or  has  been,  a  strong  tendency  to  system,  classifi- 
cation, and  morphology,  and  not  sufficient  detailed  study  of 
particular  forms  and  life  histories,  such  as  arouse  the  inter- 
est and  observation  of  children.  The  usual  text-books  in 
natural  science  are  extremely  inadequate  to  prepare  teach- 
ers for  the  instruction  of  children.  They  do  not  contain  the 
right  sort  of  material  to  serve  as  topics  in  the  grades,  even 
if  the  work  is  experimental  or  in  field  excursions. 

Books  of  science  are  very  important  in  the  training  and 
preparation  of  teachers  for  their  work  in  classes.  They  do 
not  take  the  place  of  personal  observation,  experiment,  ex- 
cursion, use  of  instruments,  collections,  in  short,  direct  con- 
tact with  nature  in  a  multitude  of  ways ;  but  books  are  a 
great  help  to  teachers  both  in  the  knowledge  offered  and 
in  guiding  their  observations  and  in  suggesting  important 
centres  and  ways  of  observation.  From  books  the  teachers 

247 


248      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

get  direct  stimulus  and  suggestion  where  to  look  and  what 
to  look  for,  and  then  they  have  sufficient  start  in  the  right 
direction  to  be  left  to  their  own  resources. 

The  different  books  helpful  to  teachers  may  be  classified 
as  follows  :  — 

1.  Text-books  and  books  of  classified  scientific  knowl- 
edge.    Through  his  previous  studies  these  books  are  famil- 
iar to  the  teacher,  and  serve  as  a  basis  for  his  own  systematic 
grasp  of  the  subject.     They  are  an  excellent  general  guide 
and  reference,  and  furnish  that  large  survey  of  the  whole  field 
which  enables  him  to  keep  his  bearings. 

A  short  list  of  identification  books,  which  are  useful  to 
teachers  and  pupils  determining  and  classifying  new  speci- 
mens, is  grouped  with  the  text-books. 

2.  Perhaps  the  most  helpful  books  to  teachers  are  the 
monographs  on  particular  topics.     They  alone  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  teacher  to  equip  himself  thoroughly  for  the 
teaching  of  particular  topics. 

It  is  this  kind  of  detailed  information  which  may  stimu- 
late the  teacher  to  the  most  careful  observations  on  his  own 
part,  and  furnish  him  with  a  rich  fund  of  accurate  scientific 
knowledge.  With  children  especially,  this  fulness  of  con- 
crete detail  is  indispensable  to  insight  and  interest.  It  is 
exceedingly  desirable  that  good,  cheap  monographs  be  mul- 
tiplied upon  all  the  important  topics  of  natural  science,  and 
then  teachers  will  be  able  in  large  measure  to  help  them- 
selves. They  do  not  take  the  place  of  observation,  but 
greatly  assist  it. 

3.  Works  of  a  higher  literary  character,  as  the  writings 
of  Burroughs  and  Thoreau,  stimulate  a  love  for  nature  and 
at  the  same  time  suggest  the  closest  methods  of  observa- 
tion.    The  classic  form  of  some  of  these  writers  adds  much 
to  the  charm  of  their  studies.     It  need  not  be  supposed 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING        249 

that  the  classic  form  is  a  substitute  for  the  scientific  spirit, 
but  it  is  a  good  channel  through  which  the  scientific  spirit 
may  flow.  We  have  a  number  of  delightful  books  which 
breathe  the  spirit  of  a  kindly  sympathy  for  bird,  insect,  and 
even  plant. 

These  books  are  good  companions  for  those  who  wish  to 
study  nature  in  the  open  air.  They  are  especially  valuable 
for  the  moral  and  aesthetic  attitude  of  mind  that  they  culti- 
vate, for  the  humanizing  and  protecting  gentleness  with 
which  they  observe  animal  and  plant  life.  This  counteracts 
the  naturally  thoughtless,  wasteful,  and  destructive  habits 
of  children.  The  tree  or  a  flowering  plant  has  a  life  not 
to  be  wantonly  destroyed.  The  robins  and  sparrows  have 
anxieties  and  rights  which  the  schoolboy  should  respect. 
The  aesthetic  sense,  the  appreciation  of  delicacy  and  beauty 
of  form  and  color  and  motion  in  the  things  of  nature,  the 
whole  aesthetic  taste  and  appreciation,  are  matters  of  slow 
development,  and  some  of  the  classic  writers  just  mentioned 
are  well  able  to  open  our  eyes  to  these  best  influences  of 
nature  study. 

A  few  of  the  masterpieces  of  scientific  literature  are 
grouped  with  the  above. 

By  means  of  the  masterpieces  we  are  able  to  keep  abreast 
of  scientific  thought.  The  schoolmaster  must  not  fall  far 
behind  the  more  recent  developments  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge. Otherwise  he  will  be  teaching  what  scientists  regard 
as  exploded  theories.  Moreover,  the  great  writers  like 
Darwin,  Agassiz,  Gray,  Tyndall,  Haeckel,  Lyell,  and  their 
like,  are  the  most  stimulating  and  broad-minded  in  their 
influence.  It  is  of  very  great  advantage  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  masters  of  any  science. 

4.   Books  of  practical  application  of  science  to  life. 

These  are  extremely  useful  books  for  teachers  in  working 


25O      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

up  special  topics  for  the  schoolroom.  Many  of  them  are 
monographs  with  full  and  practical  information  designed  for 
farmers,  gardeners,  cooks,  foresters,  nursery  men,  and  other 
specialists. 

Descriptions  of  machines,  inventions,  and  industrial  pro- 
cesses are  also  included.  The  government  reports,  Farmers' 
Bulletins,  and  state  publications  are  in  cheap  pamphlet  form 
and  can  be  had  on  application  or  for  a  small  price.  Full 
sets  of  these  publications  should  be  supplied  to  schools  as 
reference  material. 

5.  Nature  study  books  for  the  collateral  reading  of 
children. 

In  the  last  few  years  a  large  number  of  science  readers  for 
use  in  the  grades  for  supplementary  reading  has  been  offered 
to  the  schools  by  different  publishers. 

It  is  a  serious  question  to  determine  just  what  is  the  value 
of  these  science  readers.  It  should  first  of  all  be  clearly 
understood  that  they  do  not  take  the  place  of  observation 
and  real  nature  study.  They  should  follow  rather  than  pre- 
cede the  oral  lessons,  excursions,  collections,  and  class  study. 
After  children  have  been  introduced  by  observation  and  class 
instruction  to  important  topics,  it  may  prove  valuable  to 
use  the  supplementary  readers  to  enlarge  and  define  more 
closely  their  scientific  knowledge.  Science  readers,  how- 
ever, are  to  be  regarded  as  books  of  instruction  for  purely 
supplementary  and  private  reading,  rather  than  as  text-books 
for  regular  reading  exercises.  The  regular  reading  lessons 
should  be  devoted  to  the  appreciative  study  and  rendering 
of  American  and  English  classics.  Books  of  information, 
whether  from  science,  history,  or  geography,  are  not  good 
enough  to  serve  for  the  purpose  of  the  standard  reading 
exercises.  Many  of  the  science  readers,  however,  will  prove 
quite  helpful  to  teachers  in  supplying  them  with  a  part,  at 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING 

least,  of  the  necessary  scientific  knowledge.  Larger,  more 
complete  scientific  treatises  are,  of  course,  better ;  but  most 
teachers  have  neither  the  time  nor  the  money  to  spend  upon 
the  larger,  complete  books  of  science. 

6.  Elementary  popular  science  books  for  older  readers. 
A  number  of  excellent  books  are  found  in  this  group  for 
older  children  and  for  the  broader  information  of  teachers. 

Many  of  these  books  might  deserve  to  be  placed  with  the 
literary  works  and  masterpieces  of  science.  They  should 
be  well  represented  in  the  school  library,  and  used  for  refer- 
ence and  for  stimulation  along  many  lines  of  investigation. 

7.  The  list  of  biographies  of  eminent  scientists  may  prove 
of  much  value  to  teachers  and  older  pupils. 

It  is  advisable  to  use  them  in  connection  with  the  topics 
which  they  best  illustrate. 

They  are  a  means  of  awakening  an  interest  in  the  his- 
tory of  scientific  progress,  which  they  illuminate.  The 
problems  and  difficulties  of  science  are  shown  up  more 
clearly  in  the  labors  of  such  men  than  by  any  other  means. 
Such  biographies  should  be  of  great  service  to  children,  both 
in  their  personal  influence  and  in  their  scientific  bearings. 

8.  Books  of  professional  and  pedagogical  value  to  teach- 
ers.     These  books  discuss  courses  of  study,  methods  of 
instruction,  and   give   many   excellent   illustrations   of  the 
treatment  of  topics.     On  account  of  the  rapid  development 
and  great  importance  of  nature  study  in  schools,  the  pro- 
fessional literature  is  growing  rapidly  in  quantity  and  value. 

Some  of  these  books,  like  Hodge's  "Nature  Study  and 
Life,"  are  surprisingly  helpful  to  teachers. 


2$2      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

I.    TEXT-BOOKS 

How  Plants  Grow  (Asa  Gray).     American  Book  Co.   pp.233. 
Plant   Relations  (John  M.  Coulter).      D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

pp.  264. 
The   Nature  and  Work   of  Plants  (Daniel  T.  McDougal). 

The  Macmillan  Co. 
Lessons  with  Plants  (L.  H.  Bailey).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  491. 
Lessons  in  Botany  (Asa  Gray).    American  Book  Co.   pp.  226. 

For  beginners. 
Botany  All  the  Year  Round,  a  practical  text-book  for  schools 

(E.  F.  Andrews).     American  Book  Co.     pp.  302. 
The  Teaching  Botanist  (William  F.  Ganong).     The  Mac- 
millan Co.     pp.  270.     Outline  and  directions  for  an  ele- 
mentary course. 
Laboratory  Practice  for  Beginners   in   Botany  (William  A. 

Setchell).     The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  199. 
Animal  Activities  (Nathaniel  S.  French).     A  first  book  in 

zoology  for  high   school.      Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

pp.  262. 

Foundations  of  Botany  (Bergen).     Ginn  &  Co. 
Plant  Dissection  (Arthur  Barnes  &  Coulter).     Henry  Holt 

&  Co.     pp.  250. 
Practical  Biology  (Huxley  &  Martin).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  498. 
First   Lessons   in   Physical   Science  for   Grammar  Schools 

(Avery-Sinnott).     Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co.     pp.  160. 
Appleton's  Physics.     American  Book  Co. 
Physics    for    Grammar    School   (Charles    L.   Harrington). 

American  Book  Co.     pp.  123.  A  series  of  experiments. 
Easy  Experiments  in  Physical  Science  (Leroy  C.  Cooley). 

American  Book  Co.     pp.  85. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO   SCIENCE   TEACHING 

Elements  of  Physics  (Rowland  &  Ames) .    American  Book  Co. 
A   Compend   of  Geology    (Joseph   LeConte).      American 

Book  Co.     pp.  426. 
Elementary  Chemistry  (Clarke  &  Dennis).     American  Book 

Co.     pp.  340. 
Elements   of  Chemistry   (R.   P.   Williams).     Ginn  &   Co. 

pp.   412. 
Physical   Laboratory.      Manual   for  secondary  schools    (S. 

Coleman).     American  Book  Co.     pp.  234. 
Lessons  in  Physics  (Lothrop  D.  Higgens).     Ginn  &  Co. 

PP-  379- 

Practical  Zoology  (Buell  P.  Colton).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Animal  Studies  (Jordan,  Kellogg  &  Heath).  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

Zoology  (Colton).     2  vols.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Elementary  Meteorology  (Frank  Waldo).  American  Book 
Co.  pp.  373. 

Easy  Star  Lessons  (Richard  A.  Procter).  Arranged  by 
months.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  pp.  229. 

Elements  of  Astronomy  (Sir  Robert  Ball).  The  Macmillan 
Co.  pp.  183. 

Outlines  of  Field  Geology  (Sir  Archibald  Geikie). 

Outlines  of  Physics.  An  elementary  text-book  for  second- 
ary schools  (Edward  L.  Nichols).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
pp.452. 

Anatomy  (Gray).     Lea  Brothers. 

Physiology  for  Beginners  (Foster  &  Shore).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  pp.  241. 

Text-book  of  Anatomy  (Gerrish).     Lea  Brothers. 

Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live  (Albert  F.  Blaisdell).  Ginn 
&  Co.  pp.  412. 

The  Human  Body  (H.  Newell).  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
PP-  337- 


254      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Applied  Physiology  (Frank  Overton).  American  Book  Co. 
pp.  432. 

Physiology  (Colton).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

Lessons  in  Elementary  Physiology  (Thomas  Huxley).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  577. 

Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene  (William  O.  Krohn).  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

How  to  Keep  Well  (Albert  F.  Blaisdell).  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  250. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene  (Joseph  C.  Futchinson).  Maynard, 
Merrill  &  Co. 

IDENTIFICATION  BOOKS 

Birds  of  Village  and  Field  (Florence  A.  Merriam).  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  406.  Excellent  short  descrip- 
tions of  birds. 

Birds  of  the  United  States  (Austin  C.  Apgar).  American 
Book  Co.  pp.  415. 

Birds  of  Eastern  United  States  (Frank  N.  Chapman). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.  pp.  431. 

Bird  Neighbors  (Blanchan).     Doubleday  &  McClure. 

Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects  (Comstock). 

Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States  (Austin  C.  Apgar). 
American  Book  Co.  pp.  224. 

A  Guide  to  the  Trees  (Alice  Lounsberry).  Frederick  A. 
Stokes  Co.  pp.  313.  Illustrated. 

Our  Native  Trees  (Harriet  L.  Keeler).  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons.  pp.  533.  Illustrated. 

Nature's  Garden  (Blanchan).     Doubleday  &  McClure. 

How  to  Know  the  Wild  Flowers  (Mrs.  William  Starr  Dana). 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

Field  Book  of  American  Wild  Flowers  (Mathews).    Putnam. 


BOOKS   AS   AN  AID   TO   SCIENCE  TEACHING       255 

2.   SPECIAL  MONOGRAPHS 

The  Milkweed  Butterfly  (Scudder).     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 

Vegetable  Mold  and  the  Earthworm  (Darwin).  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co. 

Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps  (Sir  John  Lubbock).  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

Sunshine  (Johnson).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

The  Oak  (H.  Marshall  Ward).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  Sun  (Young).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Volcanoes  (Judd).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Mt.  Shasta,  National  Geographic  Monographs  (Diller). 
American  Book  Co. 

Coal  and  Coal  Mines  (Greene).     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Unography.  The  Constellations  Visible  in  the  United 
States  (C.  A.  Young).  Ginn  &  Co.  pp.  42. 

Life  in  Ponds  and  Streams  (W.  Furneaux).  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.  pp.  399. 

Insect  Life  (John  Henry  Comstock).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
pp.  340. 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology  (J.  G.  Needham).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  310. 

Ten  New  England  Blossoms  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Our  Edible  Toadstools  and  Mushrooms  (Gibson).    Harpers. 

The  Story  of  our  Continent  (Shaler).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Elementary  Meteorology  (Waldo).     American  Book  Co. 

Photography,  Indoors  and  Out  (Black).  Houghton,  Mif- 
flin &  Co. 

The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal  (Edward  A.  Martin).  A  full 
descriptive  and  illustrative  treatment.  Coal-gas  and 
coal-tar  and  by-products  fully  treated.  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.  pp.  165. 


256      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

The  Story  of  Photography  (Alfred  T.  Story).     Illustrated. 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  1 73. 
The  Story  of  Germ  Life  (H.  W.  Conn).     A  full  and  simple 

study  of  bacteria  in  their  various  forms  and  relations  to 

life.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  199. 
The  Story  of  the  Stars  (C.  F.  Chambers).     A  simple  study 

of  the  stars  and  constellations.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

pp.  1 60. 
The  Story  of  Electricity  (John  Monro).     D.  Appleton  & 

Co. 
The  Story  of  the  Earth  (H.  G.  Seeley).     Simple  account  of 

geological  history.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
The  Story  of  Plants  (Grant  Allen).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

pp.  213. 
Story  of  the  Solar  System  (George  F.  Chambers).     Simple 

account  of  sun   and   planets.      D.   Appleton  &   Co. 

pp.  185. 

Seed  Dispersal  (W.  J.  Beal).     Ginn  &  Co.     pp.  87. 
Forms   of   Water   (John    Tyndall).      D.   Appleton  &  Co. 

pp.  192. 

Butterflies  (Samuel  Scudder).     Henry  Holt  &  Co.     pp.  322. 
Corn  Plants,  their  Uses  and  Ways  (Frederick  Leroy  Sar- 
gent).    Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  106. 
The  Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Insects  (L.  C.  Miall).     The 

Macmillan  Co.     pp.  389. 
The  Frog  (Marshall).     The  Macmillan  Co. 
How  to  Read  a  Pebble.    A  guide  in  nature  study  (Fred  L. 

Charles).     Published  by  author,  De  Kalb,  111. 
Ocean  of  Air  (Agnes  Giberne).     Educational  Publishing  Co. 

PP-  453- 
The  Honey  Makers  (Margaret  W.  Morley).    A.  C.  McClurg 

&  Co.     pp.  409. 
The  Horse  (W.  H.  Flower).     D.  Appleton  &  Co.    pp.  204. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING        2$f 

American  Animals  (Stone  &  Cram).    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Birds,  their  Nests  and  Eggs  (Ernest  Ingersoll).     Bradley 

Whidden  (Boston),     pp.  188. 
The  Woodpeckers  (Fanny  Hardy  Eckstorm).     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  131.     Illustrated. 
Moths  and  Butterflies  (Ballard).     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
The  Cat  (Huidekoper).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

SHORT  COMBINED  MONOGRAPHS 

Outlines  of  Lessons  in  Botany  (Jane  H.  Newell).  Part  II, 
Flower  and  Fruit.  Short,  simple  descriptions  of  com- 
mon plants  with  their  flowers.  Ginn  &  Co. 

A  Few  Familiar  Flowers  (Margaret  Warner  Morley).  Ginn 
&  Co.  pp.  274.  Excellent  studies. 

Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves  (F.  Schuyler  Mathews). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.  pp.  320.  Excellent,  with  illus- 
trations. 

Life  Histories  of  American  Insects  (Clarence  Moores  Weed). 
The  Macmillan  Co.  pp.  272.  Well  illustrated. 

Animal  Memoirs,  Part  I,  Mammals,  pp.  317.  Part  II, 
Birds,  pp.  379  (Samuel  Lockwood).  American  Book 
Co.  (Ivison,  Blakeman  &  Co.). 

The  Evolution  of  Plants  (Douglas  Houghton  Campbell). 
The  Macmillan  Co.  pp.  319. 

Elementary  Biology  (E.  R.  Boyer).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

PP.  235. 

Town  Geology  (Charles  Kingsley).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
pp.  239. 

Outdoors  Studies  (James  G.  Needham).  American  Book 
Co.  pp.  85. 

Seaside  and  Wayside  (Julia  McNair  Wright).  Nature  read- 
ers in  three  volumes.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 


258      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

My  Saturday  with  a  Bird  Class  (Margaret  Miller).     D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co.     pp.  107. 
Primary  Lessons  in  Human  Physiology  (W.  E.  Baldwin). 

American  Book  Co.  (Werner  Co.) 
Wild   Neighbors  (Ernest   Ingersoll).     The   Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  301.     Excellent.     Illustrated. 
The  Common  Trees  (Susan  Stokes).     American  Book  Co. 

pp.  108. 
The  Stories  of  the  Trees  (Mrs.  Dyson).     Thomas  Nelson  & 

Sons,  N.Y. 

GUIDES  FOR  SCIENCE  TEACHING 
Pamphlets  published  by  D.  C.  Heath  &>  Co. 

Worms  and  Crustacea  (Alpheus  Hyatt). 

Commercial  and  Other  Sponges  (Alpheus  Hyatt). 

First  Lessons  on  Minerals  (Ellen  H.  Richards). 

Oyster,  Clam,  and  Other  Common  Mollusks  (Alpheus  Hyatt). 

About  Pebbles  (Alpheus  Hyatt). 

Common    Hydroids,    Corals,  and    Echinoderms   (Alpheus 

Hyatt). 

Concerning  a  Few  Common  Plants  (George  L.  Goodale). 
First  Lessons  in  Chemistry  (G.  P.  Phoenix). 
Observation  Lessons  on  Common  Minerals  (H.  L.  Clapp). 
First  Lessons  in  Natural  History  (Mrs.  Agassiz). 
Insects  (Hyatt  &  Arms). 
Common  Minerals  and  Rocks  (William  O.  Crosby). 

A  Year   among   the   Trees  (Wilson   Flagg).      Educational 

Publishing  Co.     pp.  308. 
World  of  Matter  (Harlan  H.  Ballard).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

pp.  264. 
Nature  Study  for  Grammar  Grades  (Wilbur  S.  Jackman). 


BOOKS   AS   AN  AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING       259 

The   Macmillan   Co.     pp.   407.      Outlines   of  topics 

worked  out. 
Everyday  Birds  (Bradford  Torrey).     Hough  ton,  Mifflin  & 

Co.     pp.  103.     Illustrated. 
The    Bird    Lover    in    the    West  (Olive    Thorne    Miller). 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  273. 

3.   NATURE   STUDY  CLASSICS 

In  Birdland  (Leander  S.  Keyser).  A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 
pp.  269. 

Frail  Children  of  the  Air  (Samuel  H.  Scudder).  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  279. 

Birds  through  an  Opera  Glass  (Florence  A.  Merriam). 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  223. 

Up  and  Down  the  Brooks  (Mary  E.  Bamford) .  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  222. 

Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers  (John  Burroughs).  Hough- 
ton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  149.  Well  illustrated. 

Three  Outdoor  Papers  (T.  W.  Higginson).  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

Birds  and  Bees,  Sharp  Eyes,  and  Other  Papers  (John  Bur- 
roughs). Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  pp.  189. 

Nature  in  Verse  (Mary  I.  Lovejoy).     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co. 

PP-  3°5- 

The  Friendship  of  Nature,  a  New  England  Chronicle  of 
Birds  and  Flowers  (Mabel  Osgood  Wright).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  pp.  238. 

Highways  and  Byways  (William  Hamilton  Gibson).  Harper 
Brothers,  pp.  157.  Well  illustrated. 

Natural  History  of  Selborne  (Gilbert  White) .  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  251. 

Thoreau's  Succession  of  Forest  Trees  and  Wild  Apples. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  Biography  by  Emerson. 


26O      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Walden  (Thoreau).     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Wake  Robin  (John  Burroughs).     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

A  Naturalist's  Voyage  round  the  World  (Darwin).     D.  Ap- 

pleton  &  Co. 

Origin  of  Species  (Darwin).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Lay  Sermons  and  Addresses  (Huxley).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

4.   THE   PRACTICAL  APPLICATIONS   OF   SCIENCE 

The  Spraying  of  Plants  (E.  G.  Lodeman).  The  Macmillan 
Co.  pp.  399. 

The  Evolution  of  our  Native  Fruits  (L.  H.  Bailey).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  472.  Illustrated. 

The  Practical  Garden  Book  (Hunn  &  Bailey).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  pp.  250. 

Garden  Making.  Suggestions  for  the  utilizing  of  home 
grounds  (L.  H.  Bailey).  The  Macmillan  Co.  pp.  417. 

Agricultural  Chemistry  (Coleman  &  Addyman).  Longmans, 
Green  &  Co.  pp.  88. 

The  Soil  (F.  H.  King).     The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  303. 

A  First  Book  of  Forestry  (Filiburt  Roth).  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  291. 

North  American  Forests  and  Forestry  (Bruncken).  Put- 
nam &  Co. 

Amateur's  Garden  Book  (Hunn  &  Bailey).  The  Macmil- 
lan Co.  pp.  250. 

Agriculture  for  Beginners  (Burkett,  Storms  &  Hill).  Ginn 
&  Co.  pp.  267. 

Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Man  (Weed  &  Dearborn).  Lip- 
pincott. 

Practical  Agriculture  (Charles  C.  James).  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.  pp.  203. 

How  Crops  Grow  (Johnson).     Orange  Judd  Co. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING        26 1 

How  Crows  Feed  (Johnson).     Orange  Judd  Co. 

Milk  and  its  Products  (Henry  H.  Wing).  The  Macmillan 
Co.  pp.  311. 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing  (L.  H.  Bailey).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  pp.  525. 

Economic  Geology  of  United  States  (R.  S.  Tarr).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  525. 

Glass  Making  (Powell,  Chance  &  Harris).  George  Bell  & 
Sons.  pp.  186. 

Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry  (Frank  Hall  Thorpe).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  541. 

Irrigation  and  Drainage  (F.  H.  King).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
pp.  502. 

Elements  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Cookery  (Williams 
&  Fisher).  The  Macmillan  Co.  pp.  347.  An  excel- 
lent treatise. 

The  Chemistry  of  Cleaning  and  Cooking  (Richards  & 
Elliott).  Home  Science  Publishing  Co.  pp.  158. 

Domestic  Science  in  Elementary  Schools  (Lucy  L.  W.  Wil- 
son). The  Macmillan  Co.  pp.  407.  Excellent. 

Handbook  of  Household  Science  (Edward  L.  Youmans). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.  pp.  470. 

School  Sanitation  and  Decoration  (Burrage  &  Bailey). 
D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.  pp.  191. 

Chemistry  of  Cookery  (W.  M.  Williams).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
pp.  328. 

Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  (M.  N.  Baker).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  309. 

Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare  (George  T.  Fairchild).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  381. 

Progress  of  Invention  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (E.  W. 
Byrn).  Munn  &  Co.  pp.  476.  A  large  book  with 
superior  illustrations. 


262      SPECIAL   METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

The  Chemistry  of  Common  Life  (James.  F.  W.  Johnston). 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  575. 
Experimental  Science  (George  M.  Hopkins).     Munn  &  Co. 

pp.   914.      Elementary,   practical,   and    experimental 

physics.     Illustrated  by  820  engravings. 
The  Wonders  of  Modern  Mechanism  (Charles  Henry  Coch- 

rane).     J.  B.  Lippincott.     pp.  434.     Well  illustrated. 
The  Nursery  Book  (Bailey).     The  Macmillan  Co. 
The   Great  World's  Farm  (Selina  Gay).      Seeley  &  Co. 

PP-  365- 

The  following  are  some  of  the  Farmers'  Bulletins  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
which  may  be  obtained  through  the  Representatives  in 
Congress,  or  directly  from  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington. 

13.  Some  Common  Birds  in  their  Relation  to  Agriculture. 

16.  Leguminous  Plants,     pp.  24. 

19.  Important  Insecticides,     pp.  32. 

22.  The  Feeding  of  Farm  Animals,     pp.32. 

23.  Foods,  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost.     pp.  32. 
28.  Weeds  and  How  to  Kill  Them.     pp.  32. 
32.  Silos  and  Silage,     pp.  32. 

34.  Meats,  Composition  and  Cooking,     pp.  29. 

38.  Spraying  for  Fruit  Diseases,     pp.  12. 

40.  Farm  Drainage,     pp.  24. 

41.  Fowls,  Care  and  Feeding,     pp.  24. 

42.  Facts  about  Milk.     pp.  29. 
54.  Some  Common  Birds,     pp.  40. 
69.  Bee  Keeping,     pp.  32. 

63.  Care  of  Milk  on  the  Farm.     pp.  40. 

64.  Ducks  and  Geese,     pp.  48. 
67.   Forestry  for  Farmers,     pp.  48. 


BOOKS    AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING        263 

70.  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Grape,     pp.  23. 

80.  The  Peach-tree  Borer,     pp.  16. 

85.  Fish  as  Food.     pp.  30. 

86.  Thirty  Poisonous  Plants. 

91.  Potato  Diseases  and  their  Treatment,     pp.  12. 

93.  Sugar  as  Food.     pp.  27. 

94.  The  Vegetable  Garden,     pp.  24. 

99.  Three  Insect  Enemies  of  Shade  Trees,     pp.  30. 

104.  Notes  on  Frost,     pp.  24. 

112.  Bread  and  Bread-making,     pp.  39. 

113.  The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It. 
173.  Primer  of  Forestry. 

43.  Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm.     pp.  20. 

44.  Commercial  Fertilizers,     pp.  24. 

45.  Insects  Injurious  to  Standing  Grain,     pp.  24. 

51.  Standard  Varieties  of  Chickens,     pp.48. 

52.  The  Sugar  Beet,     pp.48. 

53.  How  to  Grow  Mushrooms,     pp.  20. 
57.  Butter  Making  on  the  Farm.     pp.  16. 
61.  Asparagus  Culture,     pp.  40. 

66.  Meadows  and  Pastures,     pp.  28. 

74.  Milk  as  Food.     pp.  39. 

75.  The  Grain  Smuts,     p.  20. 

76.  Tomato  Growing,     pp.  30. 

172.  Southern  Forage  Plants,     pp.  48. 

98.  Suggestions  to  Southern  Farmers,     pp.  48. 

in.  The  Farmer's  Interest  in  Good  Seed. 

1 1 6.  Irrigation  in  Fruit  Growing,     pp.  48. 

1 1 8.  Grape  Growing  in  the  South,     pp.  32. 

120.  The  Principal  Insects  affecting  the  Tobacco  Plant. 

Add  to  the  above  the  series  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  under 
the  title  of  Experiment  Station  Work,  Nos.  56,  65,  69,  78, 
79,  84,  87,  92,  97,  103,  105,  114,  119,  122,  124,  133,  144. 


264      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

GOVERNMENT  REPORTS  AND  BULLETINS 

The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It  (G.  B.  Brackett).  Farmers' 
Bulletin,  No.  113.  Washington,  Government  Printing 
Office,  1900. 

Pruning  and  Training  of  Grapes  (E.  D.  Lodeman).  Year 
Book  of  Department  of  Agriculture,  1896. 

The  Peach-tree  Borer  (C.  L.  Marlatt).  Circular  No.  54, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Entomology. 

The  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of  Growing  Wheat  (C.  L. 
Marlatt).  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  132.  Government 
Printing  Office. 

Squab  Raising  (William.  E.  Rice).  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. 
177.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1903. 

Protection  of  Birds  and  Game  of  State  Officials  and  Organi- 
zations for  1901.  Circular  No.  33,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Birds  of  a  Maryland  Farm.  No.  1 7,  Division  of  Biological 
Survey. 

Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture.  No.  15,  Division  of 
Biological  Survey. 

Sewage  Disposal  on  the  Farm  and  the  Protection  of  Drink- 
ing Water  (Theobold  Smith).  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  43, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1896. 

The  Liming  of  Soils  (H.  J.  Wheeler).  Farmers'  Bulletin, 
No.  77.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
1899. 

Farm  Drainage  (C.  G.  Elliott).  Farmers'  Bulletin,  No.  40. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1899. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO   SCIENCE   TEACHING        265 

THE  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY  TEACHERS'  LEAFLETS 

No.    i.   How  a  Squash  Plant  Grows  out  of  a  Seed  (L.  H. 

Bailey). 

No.    2.   How  a  Candle  Burns  (George  W.  Cavanaugh). 
No.    3.   Apple  Twigs  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
No.    4.   The  Children's  Garden  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
No.    5.   Some  Tent  Makers  (Anna  Botsford  Comstock). 
No.    7.   Hints  on  Making  Collections  of  Insects  (Comstock). 
No.    8.   Leaves  and  Acorns  of  our  Common  Oaks  (A.  P. 

Wyman). 

No.  10.   The  Birds  and  I  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
No.  ii.   Life  in  an  Aquarium  (May  Farrard  Rogers). 
No.  12.   How  Trees  Look  in  Winter  (L.  H.  Bailey). 
No.  13.   Evergreens   and   How  They  Shed  Their  Leaves 

(H.  P.  Gould). 

CORNELL  UNIVERSITY  NATURE  STUDY  BULLETINS 

No.  i.  A  Summer  Shower  (R.  S.  Tarr).    Leaflets,  No.  14. 
No.  2.   A  Handful  of  Soil  (R.  S.  Tarr).     Nature  Study. 

Leaflets,  No.  15. 
Junior  Naturalist.     Leaflets,  No.  3.     Little  Hermit  Brothers 

(A.  B.  Comstock). 
Stealing  a  Ride.     Sir  Burr-Tramp  and  Traveler  (Margaret 

Boynton).     Junior  Leaflets,  No.  4. 
Nature   Study   Quarterly,  No.   3.     Cuttings   and   Cuttings 

(L.  H.  Bailey). 

Nature  Study  Quarterly,  No.  5.     A  Brook  (J.  O.  Martin). 
Nature  Study  Quarterly,  No.  6.     How  Plants  Live  Together 

(L.  H.  Bailey). 
Bulletin  1 60.   January,  1899.    Horticultural  Division.    Hints 

on  Rural  School  Ground  (L.  H.  Bailey). 


266      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

The  following  one-cent  pamphlets,  published  by  C.  M. 
Parker,  of  Taylorville,  111.,  are  by  A.  D.  Shamel  and  C.  B. 
Davenport  of  Champaign,  Ills. :  — 

1.  Farm  Seeds. 

2.  Corn  and  Wheat  Fields. 

3.  Forage  Crops. 

4.  Root  Crops. 

5.  Cultivation  of  Crops. 

6.  Testing  Seeds. 

7.  A  Trial  Field  for  Farm  Crops. 

8.  Beautify  the  School  Grounds. 

9.  Cost  of  raising  a  Bushel  of  Corn. 

10.  Amount  of  Smut  in  Oats. 

11.  Vacation  Experiments. 

12.  Vacation  Experiments  in  Corn  Roots. 
13-   Origin  of  Farm  Animals. 

14.  Dogs  and  their  Relations. 

15.  The  Horse  and  his  Relations. 

16.  The  Story  of  the  Breeds  of  Horses. 

5.  COLLATERAL  READING  FOR  CHILDREN 

Animals  at  Home  (Lillian  L.  Bartlett).  American  Book 
Co.  pp.  172.  Short  stories  of  animal  and  bird  life. 

Glimpses  of  the  Animate  World  (James  Johonnot).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  4J4- 

Natural  History  Readers.  Fifth  and  Sixth  Readers.  Boston 
School  Supply  Co. 

Bird  World  (Stickney-Hoffman).  Ginn  &  Co.  For  inter- 
mediate grades. 

The  First  Book  of  Birds  (Olive  Thorne  Miller).  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 


BOOKS    AS    AN    AID    TO    SCIENCE    TEACHING 

The  Story  of  the  Red  Deer  (J.  W.  Fortescue).    The  Mac- 

millan  Co. 
Stories  of  Bird  Life  (T.  Gilbert  Pearson).  B.  F.  Johnson 

Publishing  Co.     pp.  236.     Illustrated. 
Familiar  Animals  and  their  Wild  Kindred  (John  Monteith). 

American  Book  Co.     pp.  208.     Illustrated. 
Nature  Study  by  Months.    Part  I  (Arthur  C.  Boyden).    New 

England  Publishing  Co.     pp.  104. 
Popular   Science    Readers,  six-graded   books    (Vincent  T. 

Murche).     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Nature  Stories  for  Young  Readers.     Two  Books.     Book  I, 

Plants,     pp.  107.     Book  II,  Animals,    pp.  172.    D.  C. 

Heath  &  Co. 
A  Reader  in  Botany,  Part  II  (Jane  H.  Newell).    Ginn  &  Co. 

pp.  179. 
A  Song  of  Life  (Margaret  Morley).     A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

t  PP-  J55- 

Animal  Life  in  the  Sea  and  on  the  Land  (Sarah  Cooper). 
American  Book  Co.  pp.  413. 

First  Studies  of  Plant  Life  (George  Francis  Atkinson). 
Ginn  &  Co.  pp.  261. 

Citizen  Bird  (Wright  &  Coues).  The  Macmillan  Co. 
pp.  430. 

Little  Nature  Studies  (Burroughs  &  Burt).  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  103.  For  second  and  third  grades. 

Leaves  from  Nature's  Book  (Mrs.  M.  N.  Kelly).  Educa- 
tional Publishing  Co. 

Curious  Homes  and  their  Tenants  (James  Carter  Beard). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Stories  of  Animal  Life  (Charles  Frederick  Holder).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  261. 

The  Book  of  Bugs  (Sutherland).     Street  &  Smith. 

Stories  of  Insect  Life  (Murtfeldt  &  Weed).  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  72. 


268      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Plants  and  their  Children  (Mrs.  William  Starr  Dana).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  272. 

Short  Stones  of  our  Shy  Neighbors  (Mrs.  M.  A.  B.  Kelly). 
American  Book  Co.  pp.  214. 

Natural  History  Readers  (J.  G.  Wood).  A  full  series. 
Boston  School  Supply  Co. 

The  Sciences  (Edward  S.  Hold  en).  Ginn  &  Co.  pp.  224. 
A  reading  book  for  children. 

Wilderness  Ways  (William  J.  Long).     Ginn&  Co.     pp.  154. 

Lovers  of  the  Woods  (Boardman).     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

In  Brook  and  Bayou  (Clara  Kern  Bayliss).  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.  pp.  1 80. 

Wood  Folk  at  School  (William  J.  Long).  Ginn  &  Co.  pp. 
188. 

Secrets  of  the  Woods  (William  J.  Long).  Ginn  &  Co.  pp. 
184. 

Ways  of  Wood  Folk  (William  J.  Long).    Ginn  &  Co.    pp.  205. 

Friends  and  Helpers  (Sarah  J.  Eddy).  Ginn  &  Co.  pp. 
231. 

The  Forest  (Stewart  E.  White).    The  Outlook  Co.    pp.  276. 

Stories  of  Starland  (Mary  Procter).  Potter  &  Putnam  Co., 
N.Y.  pp.  185.  Very  attractive  and  suitable  for  chil- 
dren. 

The  Hall  of  Shells  (Mrs.  A.  S.  Hardy).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
pp.  176. 

Stories  of  Humble  Friends  (Katherine  Pyle).  American 
Book  Co.  pp.  197. 

A  Young  Folks'  Story  Book  of  Natural  History  (Charles  F. 
Holden).  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.  pp.  285. 

Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins  (James  Johonnot).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  224. 

Neighbors  with  Claws  and  Hoofs  (James  Johonnot).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  256. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO   SCIENCE   TEACHING        269 

Flyers,  Creepers,  and  Swimmers  (James  Johonnot).  Ameri- 
can Book  Co.  pp.  208. 

Living  Creatures  of  Water  and  Land  and  Air  (John  Mon- 
teith).  American  Book  Co.  pp.  208. 

Natural  History  in  Anecdote  (Alfred  H.  Miles).  Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.  pp.  384. 

Stories  of  Insect  Life  (Clarence  Moores  Weed).  Ginn  &  Co. 
pp.  54.  Excellent  short  descriptions. 

6.     ELEMENTARY   POPULAR   SCIENCE   BOOKS 

Familiar  Talks  on   Astronomy  (William   Harwar   Parker). 

A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.     pp.  264. 
Starland  (Robert  S.  Ball).     Ginn  &  Co.     pp.  376.     A  very 

interesting  book  on  the  solar  system  and  stars  for  young 

people. 
Science  Sketches  (David  Starr  Jordan).     A.  C.  McClurg  & 

Co.     pp.  287. 
The  Great  World's  Farm  (Selina  Gay).     Seeley  &  Co.    pp. 

365- 

The  Geological  Story  (James  D.  Dana).  American  Book 
Co.  pp.  302. 

Sunshine  (Amy  Johnson).     The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  502. 

The  Fairy  Land  of  Science  (Arabella  Buckley).  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.  pp.  244.  Short  monographs.  Illustrated. 

Inmates  of  my  House  and  Garden  (Mrs.  Brightwen).  The 
Macmillan  Co.  pp.  277.  Illustrated. 

The  Earth  and  its  Story  (Angelo  Heilprin).  Silver,  Burdett 
&  Co.  pp.  265.  A  popular  outline  of  geology,  with 
good  illustrations. 

The  Story  of  the  Birds  (James  Newton  Baskett).  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.  pp.  240. 

The  Plant  World  (Frank  Vincent).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
pp.  228. 


2/O      SPECIAL   METHOD    IN   ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

Madam  How  and  Lady  Why  (Charles  Kingsley).    The  Mac- 

millan  Co.     pp.  321. 
The  Population  of  an  Old  Pear  Tree  (E.  Van  Breyssel). 

The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  221. 
News  from  the  Birds  (Leander  S.  Keyser).     D.  Appleton 

&  Co.     pp.  229. 
Glimpses  of  the  Plant  World  (Fanny  D.  Bergen).     Ginn  & 

Co.    pp.  156. 
Home  Studies  in  Nature  (Mary  Treat).     American  Book 

Co.     pp.  243. 

The  Story  of  the  Hills  (H.  N.  Hutchinson).     The  Macmil- 
lan Co. 
First  Book  in  Geology  (N.  S.  Shaler).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

pp.  255.     A  book  for  the  use  of  beginners. 
The  Clerk  of  the  Woods  (Bradford  Torrey).     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  274. 
A  Reader  in  Botany  (Jane  H.  Newell).     Ginn  &  Co.    pp. 

199. 
Geological  Excursions  (Alexander  Winchell).     S.  C.  Griggs 

&Co. 
Elementary  Biology  (H.  J.  Campbell).     Swan  Sonnenschein. 

pp.  306. 
Popular  Lessons   and   Addresses   (Lord   Kelvin).     Part  I, 

Constitution   of  Matter,     pp.  464.     Part  II,  Geology 

and  General  Physics,     pp.  599.     The  Macmillan  Co. 
Sound.     A  Series  of  Simple  Experiments  (Alfred  Marshall 

Mayer).     D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  180. 
First  Course  in  Science  (John  F.  Woodhull)  in  two  com- 
panion  volumes.     Vol.   I,    A   Book    of   Experiments. 

Vol.  II,  Text-book,     pp.  127.     Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Easy  Experiments  in  Physics  (Preston  Smith).     The  Morse 

Co.     pp.  217. 
Sharp  Eyes.    A  Rambler's  Calendar  of  Fifty-two  among 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO    SCIENCE   TEACHING       2/1 

Insects,  Birds,  and  Flowers  (William  Hamilton  Gibson). 
Harper  Brothers,  pp.  312.  Finely  illustrated. 

Popular  Readings  in  Science  (Gall  &  Robertson).  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.  Illustrative  monographs  on  water, 
bacteria,  etc. 

Through  Magic  Glasses  (Arabella  B.  Buckley).  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.  pp.  234.  A  sequel  to  the  Fairy  Land  of 
Science.  Short  monographs  on  special  topics. 

Flashlights  on  Nature  (Sir  John  Lubbock).  The  Macmillan 
Co.  pp.  429.  Illustrated. 

Flowers,  Tints,  and  Leaves  (Sir  John  Lubbock).  The  Mac- 
millan Co.  pp.  147. 

Nature  and  Man  in  North  America  (Shaler).     Scribner's. 

Elementary  Lessons  in  Physical  Geography  (Tarr).  The 
Macmillan  Co. 

Seaside  Studies  in  Natural  History  (Agassiz).  James  R.  Os- 
good  &  Co. 

The  Wonders  of  Plant  Life  (Herrick).     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Agassiz's  Geological  Sketches.     James  R.  Osgood  &  Co. 

Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication  (Darwin).  D. 
Appleton  &  Co. 

Lessons  in  Electricity  (John  Tyndall).  Lectures  and  experi- 
ments designed  for  boys  and  girls.  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Lives  of  the  Hunted  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton).  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons. 

Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known  (Ernest  Thompson  Seton.) 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

7.     BIOGRAPHIES    OF  SCIENTISTS 

Charles  Darwin  (Edward  B.  Poulton).     The  Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  220. 
Justus  von  Liebig  (W.  A.  Shenstone).    The  Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  220. 


2/2      SPECIAL    METHOD   IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE 

Charles  Lyell  and  Modern  Geology  (T.  G.  Bonney).    The 

Macmillan  Co.     pp.  224. 
Humphry   Davy    (T.    F.    Thorpe).    The    Macmillan   Co. 

pp.  239. 
Louis  Pasteur,  his  Life  and  Labors  (Lady  Claud  Hamilton). 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  300. 
Life  of  Audubon  the  Naturalist,  edited  by  his  widow.    G.  P. 

Putnam's  Sons.     pp.  443. 
Life  and  Letters  of  Thomas  H.  Huxley,  in  two  volumes,  by 

his  son,  Leonard  Huxley.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Pioneers  of  Science  in  America  (William  J.  Youmans).     D. 

Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  508. 
Louis   Agassiz,  his    Life    and   Correspondence   (Elizabeth 

Gary  Agassiz).     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  794. 
Life   and   Letters  of  Charles  Darwin,  edited   by  his  son 

Francis  Darwin.     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Faraday  as  a  Discoverer  (John  Tyndall).     D.  Appleton  & 

Co.     pp.  171. 
The  Autobiography  of  Benjamin   Franklin,   published   by 

Ginn  &  Co.,  and  several  other  companies. 
The    Story    of   Nineteenth    Century   Science    (Williams). 

Harpers. 

8.    PEDAGOGICAL  BOOKS 

Nature  Study  and  Life  (Clifton  F.  Hodge).     Ginn  &  Co. 

pp.  541.     The  best  book  on  nature  study  yet  published, 

in  fact,  a  very  stimulating  and  practical  book. 
Nature   Study  (Wilbur  S.  Jackman).     Henr7  Holt  &  Co. 

pp.  438. 

Field  Work  in  Nature  Study  (Wilbur  S.  Jackman). 
Third  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Scientific 

Study  of  Education.     Part  II. 
The  Nature  Study  Idea  (Bailey).     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO   SCIENCE   TEACHING       2/3 

How  to   Make    a    School    Garden  (H.   D.   Hemenway). 

Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Handbook  of  Nature  Study  (D.  Lange).    The  Macmillan 

Co.     pp.  329. 
Education  through  Nature  Study  (Munson).    E.  L.  Kellogg 

&Co. 
Object  Lessons   on  Elementary  Science  (David  Salmon). 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     pp.  238. 
History  of  Chemistry  (F.  P.  Venable).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

PP-  i57. 
Primer  of  the  History  of  Mathematics  (W.  W.  Rouse  Ball). 

The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  152. 
Hints  for  Teachers  in  Physiology  (H.  P.  Bowditch).     A 

pamphlet.     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     pp.  157. 
Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools  (Mrs.  L.  L.  Wilson). 

The  Macmillan  Co.     pp.  262. 
How  to  Teach  Physiology  (Albert   F.  Blaisdell).     Ginn  & 

Co.     Pamphlet,     pp.  52. 
A  Century  of  Electricity  (T.  C.  Mendenhall).     Houghton, 

Mifflin  &  Co.     pp.  243. 
Inductive   Elementary   Physical  Science,  with  Inexpensive 

Apparatus  and  without  Laboratory  Equipment  (F.  H. 

Bailey).     D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.     pp.  105. 
Method  and  Results  (Thomas  Huxley).  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

pp.  430.     Science  Essays. 
Biological  Lectures  and  Addresses  (Arthur  Marshall).     The 

Macmillan  Co.     pp.  363. 
Nature  and  Man  in  America  (N.  S.  Shaler).     Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons.     pp.  290. 
Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication  (Charles  Darwin). 

D.  Appleton  &  Co.     pp.  451. 
Fundamentals   of  Child   Study    (Edward  A.  Kirkpatrick). 

The  Macmillan  Co. 


2/4      SPECIAL    METHOD    IN    ELEMENTARY    SCIENCE 

Systematic  Science  Teaching  (Edward  G.  Howe).  D.  Ap- 

pleton  &  Co.     pp.  321. 
Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  History  (Agassiz).    Hough  ton, 

Mifflin  &  Co. 
The  Study  of  Children  (Francis  Warner).    The  Macmillan 

Co.     pp.  264. 
School  Hygiene   (Edward  R.  Shaw).    The  Macmillan  Co. 

pp.  260. 

SUPPLEMENTAL   LIST 

With  the  Flowers,  and  Field,  Forest,  and  Wayside  Flowers, 
and  With  the  Trees;  3  vols.  (Maud  Going).  Baker, 
Taylor  Co. 

Our  Native  Trees  (Harriet  Keeler) .     Scribner's. 

Trees,  Shrubs,  and  Vines  (Parkhurst).     Scribner's. 

Practical  Forestry  (Gilford).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Flowers  and  Their  Insect  Visitors  (Gibson) .     Newson  &  Co. 

Wild  Life  in  Orchard  and  Field  (Ingersoll).  The  Mac- 
millan Co. 

Kindred  of  the  Wild  (Roberts).     L.  C.  Page. 

Wild  Life  Near  Home  (Sharp).     The  Century  Co. 

Familiar  Life  in  Field  and  Forest  (Mathews).  D.  Appleton 
&Co. 

Four-Footed  Americans  (Wright) .     The  Macmillan  Co. 

Familiar  Fish  (Macarthy).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  Relations  of  Birds  to  Man  (Weed  &  Dearborn). 
Lippincott. 

Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America  (Chapman). 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Everyday  Butterflies  (Scudder).     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

Moths  and  Butterflies  (Dickerson).     Ginn  &  Co. 

The  Bee  People  (Morby) .     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co. 


BOOKS   AS   AN   AID   TO   SCIENCE   TEACHING       2/5 

Nature  Biographies  (Weed) .     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

The  Ways  of  the  Six-footed  (A.  B.  Comstock).     Ginn  &  Co. 

Insect  Life  (J.  H.  Comstock).     D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Nature's  Garden  (Blanchan) .     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Bird  Neighbors  (Blanchan).     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

American  Animals  (Stone  &  Cram).  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co. 

Food  and  Game  Fishes  (Jordan  and  Evermann).  Double- 
day,  Page  &  Co. 

The  Brook  Book  (Miller).     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 

Nature  and  the  Camera  (Dugmore).  Doubleday,  Page 
&Co. 


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